HomeMy Public PortalAbout1993 Fire Service Evaluation Final Report.tifKEY BISCAYNE, FLORIDA
FIRE SERVICE EVALUATION
FINAL REPORT
19 JANUARY 1993
Submitted By
Douglas R. Stutz, PhD
GDS Communications
2380 Riverdale Drive North
Miramar, Florida 33025
(305) 431-2566
In fulfillment of Phase 11 of Consulting Contract, dated 9 December 1992.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge the help provided by all
members of the Village of Key Biscayne management team. Also
very helpful were Chief Paulison of Metro -Dade Fire Department
and certain members of his staff. The subject matter of this
report is extremely sensitive, however, he was very cooperative
and willing to help in the development of the report.
In addition, the author would like to thank the many citizens of
the Village who took time from their busy day to assist in
learning about the Village and its residents.
1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A review of the existing fire/rescue services currently
serving the Village of Key Biscayne was conducted. Data was
collected from Metro -Dade Fire/Rescue Department, individuals
were interviewed.and the neighboring communities of Miami and
Coral Gables were contacted. A review of the Public Safety
literature was conducted as well as the definition of the term
"reflex time".
Four options for service were considered: 1) continuing with
the county system, 2) contracting with a neighboring city, 3)
contracting with a private provider, 4) establishing a fire
service within the Village. Based upon the review, option two is
recommended with several changes. A contract should be
established with the City of Miami to provide fire/rescue
services for a period of six years. During that period, the
Village should establish its own system to effect more savings.
The system should be a Public Safety system providing the
political climate is such as to allow mutual aid to come from the
surrounding communities. If that is not possible, a combination
department should be established.
The recommendations are based upon the premise that the
definition of reflex time is accepted by the Village. Reflex
time is critical to the proper provision of service. Response
time is only a portion of reflex time and must be considered in
that fashion.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ii
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 1
BACKGROUND AND DISCUSSION 2
ALTERNATIVES 9
ALTERNATIVE I - Continue with the Metro -Dade Fire
Department 9
ALTERNATIVE II: Contract with the City of Miami Fire
Department 12
ALTERNATIVE III: Contract with a Private Organization 14
ALTERNATIVE IV: Organize a Village Fire Department 15
Combination Department 15
Public Safety 17
CONCLUSIONS 21
RECOMMEND ATI ONS
APPENDICIES
A. FIRE PROTECTION AND EMERGENCY
MEDICAL SERVICE STANDARDS
Introduction
25
28
28
Recommended Response Time Standards 31
Definition of "Response time" 31
Time Indirectly Manageable 34
Detection 34
Report of Alarm 35
Time Directly Manageable 35
Dispatch of Units 35
Turnout Time 35
Travel Time 35
Setup Time 36
Reflex Time Issues 36
Flashover 37
Emergency Medical Resuscitation Rate 37
Recommended Fire Reflex Time Standard 37
Comparison With Current Estimated or Average
Times 38
Reduction Of Fire Reflex Time 39
Detection 40
111
Reporting 41
Dispatch of Units 41
Turnout Time 42
Travel Time 42
Setup Time 42
Recommended Emergency Medical Reflex Time Standard 43
Comparison With Current Estimated or Average
Times 44
Reduction Of Emergency Medical Reflex Time 45
Detection 46
Reporting 46
Dispatch 47
Turnout and Travel Time 47
Setup Time 47
Comparison Of Reflex Time Standards With Other
Jurisdictions 47
Recommended Apparatus/Personnel Assignment Standards . 50
Discussion of Fire Suppression Apparatus/Personnel
Assignment Issues 50
Recommended Fire Suppression Standards 51
Recommendations Concerning Reductions In Fire
Assignment Standards . . . . . . . 53
Recommended Emergency Medical Standards 54
Recommended Standards For The Assignment Of Fire/Rescue
Apparatus
Assignment Of Fire Suppression Companies .
Recommended Standard . . . . . . . .
Assignment of Emergency Medical Units
Justifications and Comparisons . .
55
55
55
57
57
Recommended Fire/Rescue Apparatus Staffing Standards 58
Staffing Issues 58
Recommended Standards For Supervision And Support
Personnel 60
Field Supervision 60
Rescue Unit Staffing 62
Approach To Setting Minimum Fire/Rescue Apparatus
Staffing Standards For The Village Of Key
Biscayne 63
Fire Suppression 63
Emergency Medical 64
Recommended Engine/Truck Function Staffing Standards 64
Engine Function 64
Truck Function 65
Recommended Emergency Medical Unit Staffing
Standards 65
Comparison With Other Jurisdictions . 65
B. CONSOLIDATION OF POLICE
AND FIRE SERVICES 67
iv
C. GLOSSARY 81
D. REFERENCES 84
E. DATA REQUEST FROM METRO-DADE FIRE DEPARTMENT 92
v
C. GLOSSARY 81
D. REFERENCES 83
E. DATA REQUEST FROM METRO-DADE FIRE DEPARTMENT E - 1
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Structure Listing 3
Table 2: Alarm Data for Calendar Year 1991 5
Table 3: Miami Proposal for Fixed Costs 12
Table 4: Current Service (1 Quint, 1 Rescue, 1 Inspector) . 13
Table 5: Proposed Service (1 Quint, 2 Rescues, 1 Inspector) 14
Table 6: Cost Comparisons 23
TABLE Al: Estimated Current Average Components of Fire
Reflex Time Directly Manageable 39
Table A2: Estimated Current Average Components of Emergency
Medical Reflex Time Directly Manageable 44
TABLE A3: Average and Maximum Fire Response Times Based on a
Nationwide Survey 48
TABLE A4: Response Time Goals for Other Jurisdictions 48
Table A3: First Alarm Assignments Used by Surveyed
Departments 54
TABLE A6: Required Strength of Fire Companies 59
TABLE A7: Comparison of Results of Staffing Studies 62
Table A8: Reported Minimum Company Size Crews 66
Table A9: Staffing Goals 66
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Map of the Village of Key Biscayne 4
Figure 2: Station Locations for Metro -Dade Fire Department 7
FIGURE Al: Fire Growth vs Reflex Time 32
FIGURE A2: Cardiac Arrest Reflex Time Chart 33
vii
FIRE AND EMS SERVICE REVIEW FOR THE VILLAGE
OF KEY BISCAYNE
FINAL REPORT
January 19, 1993
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The residents of the Village of Key Biscayne, upon
incorporation as an independent political jurisdiction,
recognized that a review of their public safety options was
required. Accordingly, committees were appointed to review both
the police operations and those of the fire/rescue department.
The initial results of the reviews indicated that large sums of
money were required to maintain the existing system. Further
review illustrated that the costs were more than the service
provided actually cost. As a result, the Board of Trustees for
the Village established a consulting relationship to have a more
detailed review of the fire system to determine the most
appropriate and cost effective method of providing the service.
It was determined to proceed with the establishment of a police
service and assume the responsibility from the Metro Police
Department. This report is an analysis of the available data
with recommendations as to the most efficient and cost effective
method currently available to provide fire and rescue services to
the Village of Key Biscayne.
1
BACKGROUND AND DISCUSSION
The Village of Key Biscayne is located on the island of Key
Biscayne and occupies the middle one third of the island,
approximately 1.3 square miles. It is reached either by boat or
a single causeway, the Rickenbacker, from the City of Miami. On
the north side of the Village is Crandon Park, county owned, a
number of businesses and the causeway to the neighboring island.
This causeway ultimately leads to the mainland. On the south,
the Village is bordered by a state park, which currently is
closed due to the massive hurricane damage that occurred in
August, 1992. (2)
Table 1 provides information about the different types of
structures which are present in the Village. (2) No structures
of significance, with the exception of a historic lighthouse,
exist in the state park. Many structures exist north of the
Village and are provided fire service by the county. The normal
population of the Village is over 8,800. During the tourist
season, it does increase somewhat. There is little opportunity
for growth due to the limited space in the Village. However,
construction is underway on several new buildings, both
commercial and private. The size of new homes is increasing
significantly over what exists. This will provide an increased
fire responsibility due to the increased value of the property
involved.
Fire and rescue services are currently provided by the
Metro -Dade County Fire and Rescue Service. This Department has
2
been in existence since 1935 and was organized into its current
STRUCTURE BY TYPE
NO.
Single Family
1263
Multi -family, condo, apt. etc.
4113
High-rise, above 3 floors
33
Hotels
2
Motels
1
Businesses not otherwise mentioned
93
Gasoline Stations
4
Restaurants
18
Churches
4
Library
1
Clubhouses
2
Schools
1
Table 1: Structure Listing
configuration in 1960. It has over 1300 employees and services
more than 1900 square miles including 22 municipalities as well
as the unincorporated areas of the county. (2) Station 15 serves
the 7illage and was built in 1969 through the efforts of Dr. J.
Handweker (128). It is located on county owned property and is
staffed with county employees. Services are provided to Cape
3
Florida Park, Calusa and Crandon Parks, Crandon Marina, the
University of Miami Rosenstial facility, NOAA Laboratories, the
1% ;gFAf'aUH u
y1[�ut�eyE
(c`
,Ift! ' ".t F3L,11 .7
Figure 1: Map of the Village of Key Biscayne
Seaquarium, several restaurants and county facilities as well as
4
the Village.
Statistics for service from Station 15 for the calendar year
1991 are provided in Table 2. There were 57 water related
incidents on the Key (it is unknown how many were within the
Village boundaries). Support to the Key Biscayne Volunteers was
provided in the form of worker's compensation coverage, EMT and
MEDICAL
FIRE
OTHER
TOTAL
Village
372(71%)
24(5%)
123(24%)
519(76%)
Other Key Areas
121(74%)
12(7%)
31(19%)
164(24%)
Total Key Area
493(72%)
36(5%)
154(23%)
683
Table 2: Alarm Data for Calendar Year 1991
fire training, apparatus and maintenance. Costs for the station
included in the FY 91-92 budget represented an expenditure of
$3.281 million. (129) This station represents 3.06% of the total
operational portion of the Department. (129)
The response categories used by Metro -Dade are
A: house fire,
E: fire in a building of four stories or less,
C: fire in a high rise, four stories or greater.
Further categorization is used to define the type of fire as
follows:
Code 1: incident requiring additional equipment,
Code 2: incident can be handled with current equipment,
5
Code 3: investigation, units proceed normally,
Code 4: false alarm.
When a fire has been determined to be a Code 1 incident, the
incident commander determines what category of response is
required. Within the Village, the following additional personnel
and/or apparatus would be applied to the categories:
Category A: one Battalion Chief bringing total available
suppression personnel for a house fire to five. The
response procedure calls for the volunteers to bring a
pumper to the scene thus adding more personnel. The
volunteers were dispatched a total of 16 times during the
year of 1991. Rescue personnel (3 paramedics) are not
included in suppression personnel, however, they may be on
the scene and can assist in the operations if no medical
services are needed.
Category 8: one Battalion Chief, one additional suppression
unit, and one aerial unit bringing the total apparatus to
four (one being the volunteer pumper) with nine suppression
personnel available. Again, there may be volunteers and
rescue personnel on the scene, but the number is uncertain.
Category C: a second Battalion Chief, a fourth (if the
volunteer pumper is on the scene) suppression unit, a second
aerial unit.
In the case of a second alarm fire, the appropriate equipment and
personnel for an A, B, or C category fire is doubled. For a
third alarm fire, the appropriate equipment and personnel for an
6
Areas Sorted
by Other /Ire
Departrw..iib
Figure 2: Station Locations for Metro -Dade Fire Department
A, B, or C category fire is tripled, etc. (2)
Additional units beyond those located at Station 15 must
come from other stations within the county (see Figure 2) . The
sequence of response is 14, 2, 30, 40, 35, 17, 3, 19 and 7. (2)
Units from each of these county stations must pass through the
City of Miami to reach the Key Biscayne area. Data is not
7
available' for this report on the total travel time, however, it
has to be longer than that required for mutual aid units from
either Miami or Coral Gables. This is a serious consideration
for many of the structures which may be involved with fire.
Secondary rescue units would also have to come from these out-
lying stations. If the rescue assigned to Station 15 is involved
in a transport, another must be moved in or the time frame will
be extremely long.
Personnel are assigned on a 24 hour shift basis with a work
week of 48 hours. A total of 28 personnel are required to
maintain four on the squirt and three on the rescue. This is
calculated on the following basis:
Total hours/year = 8760
52 weeks X 48 hours/week = 2496 hour/yr.
Vacation and sick leave - 324 hours/yr.
Number of personnel per
position = 4.03
Total number of positions= 7
Total personnel required =28.21
Currently 20 personnel are assigned to Station 15 on a regular
basis with the remaining time being filled in by temporary
assignments or overtime.
The Key Biscayne Volunteer Fire Department currently has 10
active members. Total support is provided by Metro -Dade Fire
1 Data has been requested, however, as of the date this
report was prepared it had not been received. See Appendix E for
list of information requested.
8
Department, to include: insurance, equipment, training, etc. The
volunteers are available on a 24 hour basis. The average number
of calls per year is 16 (2) . During the six year period
preceding this report, there were five instances when
simultaneous calls required the separate dispatch of the
volunteers and Station 15.
Mutual aid with other fire departments within Dade County is
accomplished through the Operational Plan for Dade County Fire
Service Mutual Aid Organization. This plan is Appendix A to the
Fire and Rescue Annex III of the Dade County BEOP, dated 1980.
Under this plan, mutual aid could be used on Key Biscayne if an
incident exceeded the capability of resources within the zone.
Data has been requested on this, but has not yet been forthcoming
(see footnote 1) .
ALTERNATIVES
Four alternatives have been recognized by the various
Village committees that have studied the problem.(5)
Continue with Metro -Dade County Fire Department,
2. Contract with the City of Miami Fire Department,
3. Contract with a private organization,
4. Establish a Fire/Rescue service within the Village.
Each of these will be discussed in turn.
ALTERNATIVE! - Continue with the Metro -Dade Fire Department
The easiest course to follow would be to remain with the
current situation. This is strongly supported by many of the
residents of the Village. Their premise is that the current
9
service is excellent and well worth the perceived extra cost.
Those who oppose this argue that approximately $1 million is
collected as taxes than is spent upon the service in the area.
The current costs of approximately $3.6 million for the years 91-
92 (5) is higher than the county is supposedly paying. A memo
included in the document Fire and Rescue Services currently
provided by Metro -Dade Fire Department (2) indicates the cost to
be approximately $3.2 million to maintain Station 15. This seems
to be higher than it should be considering that personnel should
account for approximately 90% of the cost. Personnel costs for
that time period were expected to be $1,111,682 for suppression
and $849,706 for EMS giving a total of $1,961,388. If the rule
for personnel costs hold true, the total cost for CY 91 should
approximate $2,179,320. This, of course, does not include
amortization for apparatus and facilities nor the capital
equipment portion of the budget. It would be unlikely, however,
that one station would generate over $1 million in those
categories. It would seem likely, therefore, that the true cost
of providing the suppression and EMS services is in the range
$2.2 million to $3.2 million. Given this, the 1992 tax
collection should be approximately $3.6 million thereby creating
a surplus for the county of $0.4 to $1.4 million. This, of
course, would be used to support those geographical areas that do
not generate sufficient tax to pay the full cost of service. It
should also be kept in mind that these costs also support the
areas outside of the Village. The ratio of service is .8 (2) ,
10
therefore, the Village portion of the cost is really $1.6 to $2.5
million. The difference increases to $0.8 to $1.8 million, a
significant amount.
Services provided by the Metro -Dade organization certainly
fall into the excellent to superior category. The personnel are
well qualified and there are sufficient numbers assigned to the
station to accomplish what needs to be done. Support beyond the
initial units is not very good, however. Although the exact time
is not currently available, it cannot be good since the other
stations are so far away. It would be wise to use mutual aid
rather than dispatch units as far away as the other county
stations. This is not done at this time. Fortunately, there are
few fires on the Key and those that do occur are limited.
EMS services meet the expected standard. Again, however,
the availability of a second unit if the primary is out, is
limited. Current response, if the rescue is not available, is to
dispatch the squirt and wait until the officer determines the
need prior tc actual dispatch of another EMS unit. This will not
meet the recommended standards outlined in Appendix A. This,
however, is probably not a common occurrence. This station is
reportedly the slowest station within the county system. The
probability of simultaneous responses required is low as
indicated by the five events over six years for the volunteers
mentioned above.
If this option were not selected, it would deprive the
county of much needed funds to operate the department. It is
11
expected that station 15 would remain in service even if the
Village chose to follow another path. Should this happen, the
county would lose approximately $3.6 million in revenue and have
to pay an additional $2.2 million to maintain the station for a
total of $5.8 million in costs. This could be extremely
detrimental to the operations within the county. Other services,
e.g. inspections, arson investigation, helicopter service, etc.
are supposedly paid out of other funds.(7) If this is not true,
these services ti,ould be severely curtailed for the Village.
ALTERNATIVE 11: Contract with the City of Miami Fire Department
Another option suggested is to contract with an adjoining
city to provide the required service. The City of Miami has
submitted a letter proposal discussing this option. (132) They
have proposed a six year contract indicating that it could not be
done for a shorter period of time. Costs proposed are:
Purchase of apparatus by the Village, titled to the Village:
Table 3: Miami Proposal for Fixed Costs
APPARATUS/FACILITY
TOTAL COST
COST/YEAR
Pumper for Volunteers
$50,000
8,333.33
Quint
'$500,000
83,333.33
Rescue
$150,000
25,000.00
Inspector's Vehicle
$20,000
3,333.33
Temporary Fire Station
- Year 1
$97,750
97,750.00
12
APPARATUS/FACILITY
TOTAL COST
COST/YEAR
Temporary Fire Station - Years
2-6
218,500.00
$43,700.00
TOTAL
1,036,250.00
261,449.99
The operating costs, including personnel and other operating
expenses are provided for two different scenarios:
Table 4: Current Service (1 Quint, 1 Rescue, 1 Inspector)
CONTRACT
TERM
OPERATING
CAPITAL
TOTAL
Year 1
2,902,657
261,450
3,164,107
Year 2
2,527,657
261,450
2,789,107
Year 3
2,527,657
261,450
2,789,107
Year 4
2,527,657
261,450
2,789,107
Year 5
2,527,657
261,450
2,789,107
Year 6
2,527,657
261,450
2,789,107
TOTAL
15,540,942
1,568,700
17,109,642
Total cost of the six year contract would be $17,109,642 with
less than $3 million per year. This cost would provide the same
service as is currently provided by Metro -Dade. Another option
has been offered by the City of Miami. They propose to add a
13
second rescue to cover those times when the primary unit is out
of the area. This would entail adding personnel as well as
apparatus.
Table 5: Proposed Service (1 Quint, 2 Rescues, 1 Inspector)
CONTRACT TERM
OPERATIONS
FACILITIES
TOTAL
Year 1
3,879,576
261,450
4,141,026
Year 2
3,331,576
261,450
3,593,026
Year 3
3,331,576
261,450
3,593,026
Year 4
3,331,576
261,450
3,593,026
Year 5
3,331,576
261,450
3,593,026
Year 6
3,331,576
261,450
3,593,026
TOTAL
20,537,456
1,568,700
22,106,156
Total costs for this option is $22,106,156. This would provide a
higher level of service than currently exists. An option not
mentioned is that of an ALS pumper or quint. By placing
paramedics on the quint, the same result in rapid EMS response
can be achieved without the cost of additional personnel or
apparatus. Transport could be done by a second unit coming from
another Miami station. The cost for this would be slightly more
than the current system proposed.
ALTERNATIVE III: Contract with a Private Organization
This option was explored by the Village management. Bids
14
were solicited from Wackenhut Security Services for both police
and fire/rescue services. Although the cost for this option was
significantly lower than what currently exists and what has been
proposed by the City of Miami, it was determined by the review
committees that the problem with mutual aid was significant
enough to warrant not using this option. The political climate
through the firefighter unions is not such that they would
support providing mutual aid to a private, commercial
organization. As a result, this alternative is not considered
viable.
ALTERNATIVE IV: organize a Village Fire Department
This option has two sub -units within it; the first being the
development of a full service fire department from the volunteer
organization, the other being the development of a Public Safety
organization. Each will be discussed in turn.
COMBINATION DEPARTMENT
The current volunteer organization is composed of 10 active
members.(2) A proposal has been submitted by KEVFD (6) to
develop a combination department consisting of paid personnel
supplemented by volunteers. The proposal, if carried through,
would provide the same service that exists under the current
operation. It is proposed that 21 personnel be hired to staff
the quint with four personnel and the rescue with three. In
addition, a Chief and Assistant Chief would be hired to provide
command, administration and inspection services. As mentioned
earlier, it requires 4.03 personnel to fill one position 24 hours
15
a day year round when a 48 hour week is utilized. The schedule
suggested by the KBVFD would require that the following manyears
would have to be filled by overtime or volunteers:
Rescue Captain/Lieutenant 1.03 manyears
Paramedic 1.23 manyears
Fire Captain/Lieutenant 1.03 manyears
Driver/Engineers 0.03 manyears
Firefighters 2.23 manyears
TOTAL 5.55 manyears
Most volunteer or combination organizations use the ratio of 1:4
to measure the paid vs volunteer participation. Using this
ratio, it would require a total of 22 active volunteers willing
to spend 12 hours per week in the station able to respond to
calls. Anything less than this amount of time would require more
volunteers or a reduction in service availability. Using this as
a guide, it does not seem likely that people can be found who
would be willing to provide 12 hours per week on standby,
additional time for training and still respond to calls to staff
the pumper and/or second rescue unit. This is done in many
areas, however, those departments usually have large numbers of
volunteers who are available throughout the day. At the time of
this report, it is unknown if a community the size of the Village
can support a requirement this size.
The costs that are projected in this report (6) are quite
favorable. The total cost projected for the first year is
$1,293,600. This would be a significant savings over the other
16
projections and the existing costs. Several areas of cost are
not included, however. The cost of apparatus is somewhat low and
probably does not include the equipment required to make the
apparatus useable. There is no cost allowed for construction and
maintenance of a station and the associated equipment. If these
costs are added in, the projection will increase, however, it
still will be significantly lower than the others.
One of the premises presented in the report (6) is that
there would be little start up time and cost. If the current
volunteers were to become paid personnel, two things would
happen. One, some may not be certified and would have to go
through the basic certification course thus costing time and
money. The second, and probably the more important, the
volunteer pool would be decreased significantly. This would make
it more difficult to obtain sufficient qualified volunteers to
fill the positions mentioned above. Time and money would be
spent recruiting and training a new group. As a result, the
level of experience and training in the new department would be
reduced, perhaps below a safe level. This would be a serious
concern. It can be managed, providing there is sufficient lead
time.
PUBLIC SAFETY
In the preliminary report (133), it was suggested that the
concept of Public Safety was one to be seriously considered for
the Village of Key Biscayne. When a start up process exists such
as that currently underway within the Village, it provides an
17
ideal opportunity to examine new, and perhaps radical, ideas for
the provision of public safety services. In a community such as
the Village, there is not sufficient workload for all services
normally required in a town. Although crime exists, it is
usually of the type and frequency that managing it does not
require large amounts of the communities resources. This is
particularly true when the community is isolated in the way the
Village is. With limited access, it is much easier to control
those elements which would create a criminal situation.
The frequency of fire and rescue incidents is much lower in
a small community, particularly when isolated from others such as
being on an island. The demographics of the community listed
earlier indicate the absence of many of the problems which exist
in other communities, such as large industry, busy highways,
railroads, depressed areas, etc. This means that the community,
while it does have fire potential, does not have to meet many of
the requirements of other cities. As a result, it is easier to
consider the possibility of combining the two most costly
services provided by any community.
Appendix B outlines the PSO concept and provides a number of
case studies. This concept has been successful in a number of
areas and has failed in many others. A number of references are
listed which discuss the causes for both failure and success.
The largest single reason for lack of success seems to revolve
around the concept that one person cannot provide both services.
The labor unions are adamant about this subject. Obviously,
18
these organizations would not be in favor of any concept which
would reduce the opportunity for jobs. Their concern is valid
for larger cities where there is a much greater incidence of both
fire and police activities. It would be difficult to have one
person doing both jobs as each individual would be busy at either
one. However, the concept that each job is so technical that one
individual is unable to assimilate all of the information and use
it appropriately is not valid. Millions of persons do more than
one occupation, including both police and firefighters. Many of
these "other" jobs are extremely sophisticated. One of the best
illustrations is those individuals (firefighters) involved in
computer operations and programming. This is a highly technical
field. If it were beyond the individual's capability to learn
and do, would there be so many people in it? Probably not. Also
consider that the vast majority of the individuals involved in
public safety are at the entry level or just above it. As time
goes along, everyone tends to focus on one, or at the most a few,
areas of interest. Hazardous materials management within the
fire service or EMS itself is an excellent example. Once this
has been set aside, it is reasonable to say that there is a
different psychology required for the two types of public
service. This also exists between firefighting and EMS as well,
yet many do both. In a community with minimal requirements on
all fronts, it would only seem logical to combine the services
provided by personnel to achieve the most efficient work
environment.
19
The cost savings would be significant by using this option.
It is estimated (3) that the cost for Public Safety would be
approximately $3.7 million which would save approximately $2
million when both the police and fire costs are considered. This
estimate does not include EMS costs. A proposal has been
received by the Village for EMS services by a private provider.
The cost was $750,000 for ALS service. The patient would also be
charged for the service, thus the provider would receive
approximately $1.1 million for the service. As a point of
comparison, the City of Miramar spends approximately $900,000 for
two ALS units and support an area of 34 square miles with over
42,000 population. Private providers usually do not have as good
a reputation for excellence as public EMS organizations.
profit motive often interferes with the standard of care.
provision would be a significant concern in a public safety
environment. The requirement for suppression personnel would be
significantly reduced due to the lack of calls. If the PSOs also
provided first responder cr EMT service, the call load would
increase considerably. A combination of all three would be
unique and may well serve the community the best. As an example,
a quick response fire apparatus (a small truck
initiate fire attack) operated by two PSOs who
paramedics would provide all three services at
The
EMS
with equipment to
are trained
the same time.
The frequency of calls would be such -that this unit would be busy
approximately 30% of the time. One distinct advantage is that
the unit would be on patrol and able to respond immediately to
20
either rescue or fire calls, thus reducing the reflex time
significantly (see Appendix A for a discussion of reflex time).
This concept has been used infrequently in various forms
elsewhere, but has not been very successful due to opposition
from the various interest groups. Logically, it should function
very well.
A severe problem may exist in the PSO environment, that of
mutual aid. Due to opposition from fire and rescue organizations
and labor unions, it would be difficult to establish mutual aid
agreements with other communities. The fear of becoming
subordinate to other needs drives this opposition. If public
safety were successful in the Village, others may be tempted to
try it. As a result, opposition groups fight very hard to
pre—e:t implementation of the concept. It is believed that
�uruai aid would not be forthcoming from other communities if
public safety were put in place. Most of the incidents would not
require such support, however, should one of the larger buildings
or
a nigh life threat become involved, other units would be
recuired.
In an actual situation, it is unlikely that any city
would refuse to help, however, there are recent, local cases of
such events. This is a very serious consideration.
CONCLUSIONS
The most cost efficient method of providing fire service is
to use the Public Safety concept. This does not include the
provision of EMS services, therefore, it would have to be
21
contracted for adding to the cost. Once this is done, the
overall cost of all three services, police, fire, EMS is still
lower than the other options. An over-riding issue of mutual aid
dictates that this concept may not be appropriate at this time.
Once the community has been established, it may well be able to
follow this plan. Most of those communities who attempt to use
this concept after forming the other departments do not succeed
due to opposition group efforts.
Organization of a Key Biscayne Fire Department is the next
most cost efficient method for provision of service. It has
several drawbacks, however. The most critical is the concern
about the community being able to provide sufficient volunteers
tc fill the necessary positions without reduction in service. If
it is found later that not enough people will volunteer, the
service levels may have to be reduced below what exists today.
Contracting for
method for provision
to accomplish within
the service is the next most cost efficient
of services. This is a relatively easy one
the current framework. It would also give
time to develop one of the other concepts over the period of the
contract. Service levels would remain the same. In fact, for
slightly more money, additional service can be
still remain below the cost of the county.
Continuing on with the current service
purchased and
is the most costly,
however, it is also the easiest to accomplish. The level of
service is approximately the same between the county and the City
of Miami, therefore the service would remain intact. The costs
22
of all viable alternatives are provided in Table 6.
Table 6: Cost Comparisons
OPTION
FIRST YEAR
COST
SIX YEAR
COSTS
DIFFERENCE
I. Metro -Dade County
3,600,000
22,248,000
0
II. Contract with City
of Miami - Option A
3,164,107
15,540,942
6,707,058
Option B
4,141,026
20,537,456
1,710,544
III. Contract with
Private Provider -
PSO*
4,188,445
21,341,335
906,665**
IV. Key Biscayne FD
Option A - FD
1,800,000
10,800,000
11,448,000
Option B - PSO*
3,700,000
22,200,000
48,000**
* =ces not include costs of EMS
** Additional savings are effected due to cost of police being
incladed here.
The above chart illustrates the various costs for each
option. Options III and IVB do not include the cost of providing
EMS to the Village. Options IIA and IIB are less in cost than
they appear because the cost includes the purchase of equipment
23
and facilities which would be titled to the Village and remain
with it regardless of what course of action is selected at the
end of six years. Option IVA does not include the total cost of
facility construction and support. As a result, it understates
the true cost of this option.
The author of this report strongly feels that the
implementation of these standards by the Village of Key Biscayne
will provide a high level of protection of life and property for
residents of the Village on a cost effective basis. However,
there are several associated points to be emphasized:
This standards were developed as a set; that is , they are
interrelated, and not independent. Thus, one standard for fire
suppression services should not be implemented to the exclusion
of others. Furthermore, the staffing standard for ALS units was
specifically set at three paramedics in favor of supporting the
limited number of units available.
These standards must be implemented together because the
staffing and assignment standards are minimal based upon fast
reflex time. If a slower reflex time is experienced, then higher
staffing levels would be required because a fire might have
passed the flashover point and, therefore, require additional
resources.
The reflex time standard is the key to the entire standard
set and to the provision of the proposed cost-effective service
levels -- for both fire protection and EMS. In addition, the use
of the reflex time concept gives the Village a series of options
24
for cost effectively providing a high level of service by
applying available funds to the areas that will produce the
greatest benefit. For example, citizen CPR training, automatic
suppression and smoke detectors are areas with a high benefit -to -
cost ratio.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The recommended fire protection reflex time standard for the
Village of Key Biscayne is:
"tc initiate fire suppression actions prior to
flashover."
It is recommended that the flashover time of 9 minutes be adopted
for the fire reflex standard. This recommendation is based upon
the tact that 9 minutes is the average of the frequently quoted
range of 6-12 minutes. Therefore, the recommended fire reflex
time standard is
"to initiate fire suppression actions within 9 minutes of ignition for
at least 90% of all fire incidents, and 95% within 10 minutes."
2. The recommended emergency medical reflex time standard for the
Village of Key Biscayne is:
"To initiate definitive emergency medical assistance within 8
minutes of occurrence of life critical symptoms for 90% of
incidents, with a maximum reflex time of 10 minutes for 95% of the
responses."
3. Based upon the recommended reflex time, Option IIA, contract
with the City of Miami, should be selected as an initial step.
25
Throughout the course of the contract, the Village should plan to
adopt its own service, Option IV. The public safety concept
should be chosen, Option
however, it must include
period will allow proper
IVB as the most cost effective measure,
EMS as an integral part. The contract
development of the concept as well as a
period in which to resolve the mutual aid problem. Efforts
should be made to rectify the political climate to ensure full
support of the concept. If this is not accomplished, Option IVA
should be chosen as the next most cost effective process. A
combined system would cost the least, however, the Village
leaders must ensure that there are sufficient numbers of
volunteers to support such an effort. If not, it may require a
totally paid system. Either way, the equipment and facilities
will be in place thus reducing the initial impact. The six year
contract period is highly appropriate for this process.
4. Other recommendations are provided as a part of the overall
package:
a. The Village of Key Biscayne should immediately initiate the
process of adopting the strongest feasible automatic
detection and suppression codes. This should include such
systems in new home construction as well as commercial
buildings.
b. One of the requirements for the City of Miami as contractor
should be to equip and staff the quint in a manner that it
can serve as a non -transporting ALS unit as defined by the
State of Florida. This will significantly improve the
26
coverage when the rescue unit is transporting.
c A smoke detector program should be established to include a
testing and battery replacement service.
d. A comprehensive citizen CPR training program should be
initiated as rapidly as possible, with a goal of training
all Village residents of 12 years of age or older. The
initial effort should be toward Village employees and
employees in commercial establishments.
e. Fire/rescue procedures and training programs should be
reviewed to identify the potential for reducing average
turnout and setup time and new programs developed, as
necessary, to accomplish a reduction.
f. The fire/rescue program defined through these standards
should be monitored and evaluated (on an annual basis) and
revised as necessary.
27
APPENDIX A
Fire Protection and Emergency
Medical Service Standards
INTRODUCTION
Standards for provision of fire and EMS services are
critical to the planning for cost-effective delivery of these
services. Yet, such standards have been elusive. Even after 200
years of fire service history, nationally -accepted standards
still do not exist. Standards have been established by individual
units of local government, or they have not been directly
considered.
Thus, local government decision -makers generally do not have
answers to such questions as:
"What are the costs and benefits associated with each increment
of time in responding to a fire or rescue incident?"
"What are the costs and benefits associated with each additional
person assigned to a fire or rescue unit?"
These, and the other issues addressed in this study, are
probably the most important and difficult issues faced by fire/
rescue service decision -makers. These questions are especially
critical in reviewing budget requests submitted by fire/rescue
agencies and making the difficult decisions associated with
insufficient revenues; i.e., where should budget cuts be made and
what are the consequences?
These questions have probably been raised by local
government administrators and councils every year for the better
part of this century. The answers today are really not any better
than they were 50 years ago; and, in fact, are probably even more
elusive because of such factors as:
a) The impact of built-in fire protection systems (i.e.,
buildings with automatic detection and suppression systems
may not require the response times and personnel complements
that would be needed for the same buildings without such
systems).
b) The generally decreasing number of fire alarms and
increasing demand for emergency medical services.
c) The difficulty in recruiting and retaining volunteers in
some areas and the growing reluctance of employers to permit
28
volunteers to respond from work. (This problem is frequently
exacerbated by the increasing volume of EMS calls -- which
are not of interest to some volunteers, especially when
combined with the decreasing opportunity to fight fire.)
There are a number of suggested reasons for lack of such
decision -making criteria, including:(11)
a) The application of operations research techniques (the
quantitative tools needed to develop these criteria) began
approximately 40 years ago, but these techniques were not
generally applied to fire rescue problems until the last 20
years.
b) Goals and objectives for fire/EMS services are difficult to
establish and may vary widely between communities.
c) Data systems have not been developed which record the
information needed to conduct analysis.
d) Fire and EMS incidents are extremely complex, and the
development and consequences of a specific incident are very
difficult to predict.
e) When local government funds are readily available, there is
often no incentive to determining the most cost-effective
approach to service delivery.
f) Productivity and effectiveness in the fire/EMS services are
difficult to measure.
a'. Fire departments have (especially in the past) tended to be
insular, self-sufficient organizations with little personnel
turnover and infrequent use of outside specialists in
operations analysis and planning.
The lack of research related to standards and decision
making criteria was documented in a report by the New York City
Rand Institute, which stated:
....we have found that except for studies of the
deployment of firefighting men and equipment, there is
little research related directly to local government
policy. Most of the research is either fundamental,
such as physical and chemical research aimed at an
understanding of combustion phenomena, or engineering,
such as studies of the combustibility and
flammability of buildings and household materials."(12)
While this report was published in 1975, it is felt that the
conclusion is still applicable.
29
There have been many official declarations of the need for
answers to the questions addressed in this report -- that is,
non -validated, accepted standards and associated criteria; for
example:
1) The Wingspread II Conference (a fire service needs
assessment meeting) concluded what productivity in the fire
service is "difficult to measure" and called for
development of accepted productivity measurements and
standards. (13)
2) A program plan for the National Fire Prevention and Control
Administration (now the U.S. Fire Administration) contained
a recommended project to establish resource allocation and
response criteria.(14)
3) The International City Management Association identified
the development of these standards as a high priority
research and development need.(15)
In response to these and other statements of need for
standards, there have been several attempts to answer one or more
of the driving questions especially having to do with:
a) The required response time for fire/rescue companies.
b) The appropriate staffing level for fire/rescue companies.
However, none of those attempts have resulted in nationally
accepted standards. In general, what has been accomplished is:
a) The development of fire -growth curves (e.g., the "standard
time -temperature curve") and predictions for the time at
which "flashover" occurs (flashover is "the point at which
fire gases and all combustible surfaces of a room blast into
flame at once.") (16)
b) The development of estimates of when brain damage occurs as
a result of lack of oxygen, and mortality rates associated
with initiation of medical aid within various time
periods.(17, 18)
Several projects have been initiated to develop national
standards for company staffing and of at least nationally
recognized criteria for setting local standards; however, none
were completed. A feasibility analysis and research plan
involving the ICMA, IAFF, and IAFC was completed in 1976, but was
never implemented.(19)
A survey of "Fire Suppression Crew Sizes" was completed in
1982,(20). It was to be the first phase of an overall project
to analyze the implications of different fire suppression company
30
staffing levels. The remaining phases were not initiated because
of "cuts in federal government funding for fire research."(21)
A document which has frequently been used as a fire
department standard is the Insurance Services Office (ISO)
Grading Schedule(22) which contains criteria for:
a) required number of engine/truck companies,
b) maximum response distance.
However, this Schedule was developed for insurance rating
purposes and not for use in determining required fire department
resources. In fact, this Schedule includes the statement, "The
Schedule is a fire insurance rating tool, and is not intended
to analyze aspects of a comprehensive public fire protection
program. It should not be used for purposes other than insurance
rating."(22)
The continued use cf this Schedule for fire department
planning, considering the above statement, is indicative of the
need for corresponding decision -making criteria, and the current
lack of such criteria.
Fire service experts have listed recommended standards in
various publications. For example, Warren Kimball, writing in
Fire Attack II states that a three -person pumper crew could be
used for low to medium hazards, but four persons are needed for
engines and trucks protecting high hazards (p. 36) . A four
person pumper crew is required to be able to advance and operate
a 2 1-2" hand line (needed to fight large fires leaving the
operator at the pump.(23) Such recommendations are generally not
quantitatively justified, and the marginal utility cf alternative
standards is not discussed.
The result of this lack of nationally recognized standards
and decision making criteria is that communities have not
explicitly defined performance standards, or have developed their
own standards. Frequently, such local standards are established
as part of a community master planning project which involves the
establishment of service -delivery goals, objectives, and
selection criteria.(24)
Recommended Response Time Standards
Definition of "Response time"
The Statement of Work for this project specifies the
development of " . . . recommendations regarding response time
standards...." However, the term "response time" must be
31
explicitly defined for this project because it is used in a
number of ways throughout the fire service. For example, some
TEMP.
FLASHOVER UNREST NE IRE GROWTH
F QH WITH
2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10
MINUTES
TIME VARIES
DETECTION
OF
FIRE
RE-
PORT
OF
FIRE
FIRE SYSTEM RESPONSE TIME
Dm_
PATCH
TURN
O T
TIME
TRAVEL TIME
SET
W
TIME
TIME INDIRECTLY
MANAGEABLE
TIME DIRECTLY MANAGEABLE
FIRE
GROWTH
FIGURE Al: Fire Growth vs Reflex Time
communities define response time as, "the period of time between
the receipt cf a citizen's call and arrival at the scene," while
others use the definition, "the period of time from receipt of
dispatch by first due company to arrival on scene." A number of
other definitions are also used.
Considering the intended use of review results, it is
recommended the Village approve the use of "reflex time" as the
definition of "response time". Reflex time is the time period
from ignition to application of an extinguishing agent, and is
illustrated in Figure Al. An analogous period for a medical
incident is the time from occurrence to initiation of field
emergency medical definitive care, and is illustrated in Figure
A2. The reflex time concept is recommended because it includes
all of the components of the time period between occurrence and
initiation of public service assistance. Each time component can
be identified and analyzed, and the results used to determine how
the overall reflex time can be reduced on a cost-effective basis.
32
The amount of time required for fire detection and reporting
(as an example) cannot be directly controlled by the Village,
while the Village's fire system response time is directly
manageable, regardless of the method chosen for providing it.
Fire system response time begins with the receipt of an alarm at
the dispatch center and ends with the initiation of corrective
action (e.g., application of water). It includes the following
components:
a) time required to process the alarm and dispatch units.
FIGURE A2: CARDIAC ARREST REFLEX TIME CHART
TIME CPR STARTED VS.
PROBABUrrY OF RECOVERY
FROM CARDIAC ARREST
b) turnout time -- the period from receipt of dispatch by a
unit in quarters until the apparatus leaves the station.
c) travel time.
d) set-up time -- the period of time from arrival on scene
until suppression or medical treatment activities are
initiated.
By using reflex time as the basis for the Village's response
standard, all components of the time period can be
33
considered for improvement and resources can be applied in the
most cost-effective manner.
There is a nationwide trend toward the use of the reflex
time concept in planning for fire/rescue service delivery. For
example:
- "Despite (the) commonly accepted definition of response time,
the sequence of events that must be considered is that from
ignition to the initiation to fire -fighting activity . . . any
response time reduction strategy must involve an examination of
the time from ignition to intervention."(25)
Chief Ron Coleman recommends an approach to managing the
fire problem which addresses the individual components of reflex
time.(26)
The fire and rescue services report to the Arlington County (VA)
Board uses a response time definition containing the components
of reflex time.(27)
These references are primarily concerned with reflex time
for fire incidents, yet, the concept is just as, or more,
important for emergency medical incidents. References to reflex
time are not as prevalent in the literature, however.
The individual components of reflex time are defined and
discussed within the two categories: (1) time indirectly
manageable, and (2) time directly manageable by the Village
(refer to Figures 1 and 2) .
TIME INDIRECTLY MANAGEABLE
Detection
The period of time from initiation of event until it is
discovered by an individual who can contact the Dispatch Center.
For fire, the initiation of event is ignition, while for a
medical incident, it is the period of time from occurrence of an
injury or accident or from onset of acute symptomology (in case
of heart attacks, strokes, etc.) until the patient or someone
else decides to contact the dispatch center.
Obviously, these time periods are dependent upon a large
number of variables and are difficult to even estimate --
especially for medical incidents. In structures equipped with an
operable smoke detector, an alarm would be given approximately 30
seconds to one minute after ignition. (28)
There have been studies of the time period from onset of
34
acute symptomology to call for emergency medical services. (29)
This time period appears to vary significantly with symptomology;
however, a general study of over 3,000 patients indicates that
approximately 50% have emergency medical help requested within
5.5 minutes.(30) Average reporting times for patients with life
critical symptoms (e.g., cardiac arrest or live threatening
arrhythmia) could not be identified. It is, therefore, assumed
that such situations would be discovered within time periods
analogous to fire detection, with a smoke detector (i.e., one
minute) .
Report of Alarm
The period of time from discovery of a fire/emergency
medical incident until it is reported to the dispatch center.
This period is also difficult to estimate because of a large
number of variables, such as access to a telephone and attempts
to handle a situation prior to calling the dispatch center (i.e.
a delayed alarm). In the absence of any definitive estimates of
this time period, it seems reasonable to assume that, once
discovered, a fire or emergency medical incident would be
reported in one to two minutes).
TIME DIRECTLY MANAGEABLE
Dispatch of Units
This component is the interval between the time a call is
received by the Dispatch Center and responding units are
notified. Functions which have to be performed during this time
period are: receiving the call, determining the nature of the
request for service, transferring the call to the fire/rescue
dispatcher, identifying the appropriate available response, and
alerting the corresponding units.
Turnout Time
This time period begins with the receipt of an alarm at a
station and ends when the fire/rescue vehicle leaves the station.
(Units which are dispatched while they are "on the air and
available" generally are not associated with a turnout time.)
Travel Time
This period is the time required for the unit to drive to
the scene of the incident. Travel time is generally a function of
distance, road and traffic conditions, time of day, etc. Studies
have shown that, on an overall basis, travel times are relatively
constant; e.g., the results of the New York Experiment and
elsewhere show little or no difference in travel velocities at
different times of day, perhaps because less traffic congestion
35
is offset by poorer visibility at night."(32)
Setup Time
This component is the period of time from arrival on scene
until suppression or medical treatment activities are initiated.
Activities within this period are: dismounting, unloading
equipment, gaining access to the building, sizing up the
incident, and taking action.
REFLEX TIME ISSUES
There is complete agreement in the literature and among fire
protection/emergency medical experts concerning the need to
minimize response time in order to protect life and property.
For example, "Tests carried out by LAFD (the Los Angeles City
Fire Department) and other agencies demonstrate conclusively that
a delay in the application of fire suppression agents
significantly increases both the amount of water and time
required to control a fire."(33)
Response time is also critical for provision of emergency
medical services. Common sense, as well as numerous studies (34,
35), has substantiated this requirement for rapid initiation of
basic life support services. For example, a report by the Los
Angeles County Fire Department states: "Another study conducted
by the American Heart Association showed that the amount of time
to initiation of basic life support was critical to overall
survival rate."(36)
Specific time requirements are specified in the American
Academy of Orthopedic Surgeon's report: There must be a maximal
sense of urgency in starting basic life support. Time is
critical. If the brain is deprived of oxygen for four to six
minutes, brain damage is likely to occur. After six minutes
without oxygen, brain damage is extremely likely."(37)
Thus, there is no question that it is important to minimize
fire and emergency medical reflex time, but to what levels and at
what cost? Unit travel times could be significantly reduced by
building a fire rescue station on each corner; however, our
society would not pay for such a level of service. What, then, is
the appropriate balance of service level and cost?
A review of Figures 1 and 2 shows that the development of a
fire/emergency medical incident can be considered a continuum
from initiation to conclusion. It has been established that
emergency services should be provided as early on the continuum
as possible, considering that "appropriate balance."
For fire, the recommended critical event was "flash over."
36
The recommended emergency medical incident was the time after a
cardiac arrest at which the chance of recovery falls below 50%.
Flashover
Flashover is defined as, "...the point at which fire gases
and all combustible surfaces of a room blast into flame at once."
(16)
Deaths, injuries, and property loss can be expected to
increase significantly after flashover has occurred. In
addition, the fire department resources needed to extinguish the
fire increase greatly after flashover.
Thus, fire suppression initiated prior to flashover will
generally require less resources, and will provide greater
protection of life and property.
Emergency Medical Resuscitation Rate
The emergency medical critical event is the 50% probability
of resuscitation following a cardiac arrest -- that is, to
initiate CPR prior to the point on the continuum where the
probability of resuscitation drops below the 50% level. The
chart presented in Figure 2, based on American Heart Association
data, illustrates the point that each minute beyond 4 minutes
reduces the chance of recovery by 50%. (94)
The fire/rescue services supporting the Village, of course,
respond to many types of medical incidents other than cardiac
arrest, however, this critical event was selected because basic
life sustaining actions also nerd to be performed for other types
of medical incidents, such as asphyxiation, drowning, Sudden
Infant Death Syndrome, and other respiratory failures.
RECOMMENDED FIRE REFLEX TIME STANDARD
The recommended fire protection reflex time standard for Key
Biscayne Village is:
"to initiate" fire suppression actions prior to flash over."
This standard means that, for buildings without automatic
suppression systems, the first due unit should be on -scene -
and applying an extinguishing agent prior to the occurrence
of flashover.
The implementation of this standard requires a definition of
when (on the continuum) flashover can be expected to occur. Like
many other factors associated with the provision of fire/rescue
services, flashover is a complex phenomenon, and the time to
37
flashover can vary significantly based upon materials and
furnishings, source of heat of ignition, available oxygen, use of
an accelerant, etc.
"Flashover is now believed to be caused by thermal radiation
feedback from the ceiling and upper walls which have been heated
by the fire. This radiation feedback gradually heats the
contents of the fire area. When all of the combustibles in the
space have become heated to their ignition temperatures,
simultaneous ignition occurs."(38)
Toxic product -of -combustion levels are very important to
life safety. The Operation San Francisco tests showed that the
carbon monoxide level of 3000 ppm was exceeded approximately 8
minutes after ignition, with 5000 ppm exceeded shortly
thereafter. Because a person can survive for only 3-5 minutes in
an atmosphere with levels above 5000 ppm, it is felt that
protection for occupants from toxic products will generally have
to come from automatic detection and suppression systems.(42)
The literature contains a number of average times to
flashover: "10-15 minutes"(39); "11-12 minutes"(40), "9
minutes". In addition, actual times to flashover, as measured in
full scale fire tests, are also given: for example, 6 minutes 26
seconds, 7 minutes, and 17 minutes.(41)
It is recommended that the flashover time of 9 minutes be
adopted for the fire reflex standard. This recommendation is
based upon the fact that 9 minutes is the average of the
frequently -quoted range of 6-12 minutes. Therefore, the recom-
mended fire reflex time standard is "to initiate fire suppression
actions within 9 minutes of ignition for at least 90% of all fire
incidents, and 95% within 10 minutes."
The 90% and 95% accomplishment levels are suggested because
it is not reasonable to expect that the standard can be met in
every case
Comparison With Current Estimated or Average Times
The portion of the fire reflex time directly manageable by
the Village is estimated using current averages and summarized in
Table Al.
38
COMPONENT
CURRENT ESTIMATED AVERAGE
(MINUTES)
Dispatch of Unit
2.5
Turnout Time
1.5
Travel Time
3.2
Setup Time
1.5
TOTAL
8.7
TABLE Al: Estimated Current Average Components
Time Directly Manageable
of Fire Reflex
REDUCTION OF FIRE REFLEX TIME
The various components of reflex time offer a number of
opportunities to keep this time period within the standard. Even
the components which are only indirectly manageable (detection
and reporting) can be reduced.
The single most important action the Village can take to
meet the reflex time standard is to require and/or encourage the
installation of automatic detection and suppression systems in
new and existing structures, Including individual residences.
This action will Increase the level of protection of life and
property from fire and reduce long-term costs for provision of
fire suppression services. Thus, it is the most cost-effective
approach to meeting the fire reflex time standard.(26)
Numerous studies have proven the tremendous value of
automatic systems; for example:
A study of 117 fires showed that " . . . there might have
been approximately a 90 per cent reduction in both
lives lost and injuries sustained if fire protection
systems had been installed. Also, property loss would
have been decreased by a factor of about three with the
detector system, by a factor of about four with the
remote alarm system, and by a factor of about seven
with the suppression system."(43)
"A community policy to control and reduce property
hazards by requiring automatic sprinklers can have a
39
significant impact on holding the line with fire
department manning requirements. In addition to
improved life safety and property protection, automatic
sprinklers may reduce property insurance premiums and
the demand on the community's fire suppression delivery
system. This may open new service delivery options,
such as improvements of emergency medical services with
existing personnel. " (44 )
An analysis of fires in U.S. Department of Energy
sprinklered facilities resulted in the following conclusions:
(45)
1) The cumulative fire loss ratio since 1947 was less than 1%
of the value of the property.
2) DOE had only 26 reported fires per year from 1975 to 1983,
with over $50 billion in plant and equipment values.
3) The loss in sprinklered buildings is only 20% of the loss
in unsprinklered buildings; only low potential loss
buildings are not sprinklered.
4) There has been no loss of life in a sprinklered building
due to fire.
5) Sprinklers have been 98% effective in controlling fires.
6) Approximately 1/3 of the sprinklered building fires were
extinguished by the operation of only one sprinkler head.
7) The probability of a sprinkler head failing is
approximately one chance in one million per year.
8) Sprinkler systems are approximately twice more reliable
than other types of water systems.
9) The damage resulting from the presence of a sprinkler
system is less than 1% of the fire damage that would have
resulted if the sprinkler system had not been present.
Detection
Rapid fire detection is critical to meeting the reflex time
standard. The estimate of current reflex time was based on a
detection time which assumed the presence of an operable smoke
detector. But, what about those structures in the Village which
currently do not have operable smoke detectors or other automatic
detection and suppression devices?
Smoke detectors are proven life savers, for example:
40
"For the second year in a row, no fire deaths were
reported in Navy and Marine Corps family housing units.
Installed smoke detectors are again credited."(46)
Smoke detectors can also significantly reduce fire losses:
"Knockdown time and loss would go down dramatically if
the alarm were given when open flame first appeared.
If, through use of such warning systems as smoke
detectors or sprinklers, the alarms were received six
minutes earlier and the company present on the scene
six minutes sooner, flashover might not have occurred
and loss might be reduced to approximately one half the
loss anticipated if the first -in company arrives at
flashover." (47)
It is recommended that the Village initiate a smoke detector
program to ensure that all structures (especially independent
dwellings) are equipped with detectors and that such detectors
are operable. It is particularly important to test
battery -powered detectors and replace batteries on a regular
basis. Even if the Village purchased the batteries, the cost
would be less than meeting the reflex time standard by building
additional fire stations or adding units and personnel.
Reporting
There is little that the Village can do to further reduce
reporting time except through public education --teaching
residents (especially children) to call 911 immediately, rather
thin_ trying to fight the fire fist and then calling. The Village
currently uses the 911 system which is considered to reduce
Reporting time.(48) If the Village does not use the County's
services, it must be assured that 911 and dispatch service will
continue to be provided.
Dispatch of Units
As stated earlier, the current average fire/rescue dispatch
time is approximately 2 1/2 minutes. However, this time period
is associated with a manual dispatch system. It is understood
that the County is planning to acquire a computer -assisted
dispatch (CAD) system, which should significantly reduce the
average dispatch time.
Estimates of an average dispatch time under the new system
are not available. It is the author's experience that properly
designed CAD systems can process a dispatch as fast as the
information is obtained from the calling party; that is, after
the call is transferred to the fire/rescue dispatcher, obtaining
the information concerning the incident becomes the determining
41
factor in dispatch time.
The average time required to pre-screen a 911 call and
transfer it to the dispatcher is reported to be 18 seconds. (49)
If 30-45 seconds are required to obtain the incident
information (a reasonable average based upon the author's
experience), the average dispatch time with a CAD system should
be between 45 to 60 seconds. A one minute average dispatch time
would represent a 1 1/2 minute (50%) reduction compared to the
current average time of 2.5 minutes. (The city of Dallas has
measured the performance of its CAD system and found that the
average time from receipt of call to dispatch is 38 seconds for
EMS incidents. (96))
A one minute dispatch time would reduce the estimated
average reflex time (directly manageable by the Village)
presented in Table 1, from 8.7 minutes to 7.7 minutes, a 11%
reduction.
Turnout Time
Turnout time can be reduced by proper training of personnel
and ensuring that sufficient units are in the first response area
at all times.
Travel Time
In general, the only way to reduce travel time is to
relocate and/or add fire/rescue stations and companies. Two
alternatives being considered, provision by the Village and
contracting for service, will in essence, add a station to the
Key. At this time, the County does not have any intention of
closing Station 15 if the Village obtains its service elsewhere.
As a long term prospect, it is quite possible that it may be
closed. Travel time also becomes extremely important relative to
mutual aid companies. At this time, for service beyond that
already on the Key, County units must come from a significant
distance, in fact by passing Coral Gables and City of Miami
stations. If mutual aid is used, City of Miami units would be
the ones to respond. In any case, excluding Station 15, the
nearest next unit, either fire or rescue is more than six miles
away. Thus, the travel time for any unit would be in excess of
the Village required response time. A move -up capability should
be established to ensure that service remains within the
prescribed parameters.
Setup Time
The time required for setup can often be reduced through
improved procedures and training. It is recommended that the
42
Village establish standards regardless of the service option
chosen.
RECOMMENDED EMERGENCY MEDICAL REFLEX TIME STANDARD
The recommended emergency medical reflex time standard for Key
Biscayne Village is:
"To initiate definitive emergency medical assistance within 9
minutes of occurrence of life critical symptoms for 90% of
incidents, with a maximum reflex time of 10 minutes for 95% of
the responses."
This standard is based on studies which indicate that
definitive medical assistance for cardiac arrest provided within
this time period, together with CPR initiation within 4 minutes,
will result in a successful resuscitation in over 40% of the
cases. (99
These studies show that there is a decrease in cardiac
arrest outcomes as measured by patient discharges from hospitals
when definitive care exceeds a 10 minute response. The
percentage of patients discharged from hospitals drops from 43%
down to 22% when definitive care is delayed from a 6 to 8 minute
range to a range of 8 to 10 minutes. (100) When the time to
definitive care exceeds 10 minutes, the percentage of patients
discharged from hospitals falls below 17%. (100)
Arguably, the closest emergency medical equivalent to flash
over is the function of the time to initiate cardiopulmonary
resuscitation in a cardiac arrest incident. The author
recommends establishment cf a response time limit as the time to
initiate cardiopulmonary resuscitation prior to the point that
the probability of resuscitation drops below 50%. Based on
American Heart Association data, figure A2 illustrates the
importance cf starting CPR within the first four minutes
following the victim's collapse due to cardiac arrest.
As reported in the document entitled, Evaluation of
Paramedic Services for Cardiac Arrest, two specific factors (time
to initiate CPR and time to definitive care by paramedics)
strongly predict successful resuscitation. The study also proved
that both initiation of CPR before four minutes had elapsed from
arrest, and paramedics beginning definitive care (defibrillation,
intubation, and medication) within an eight minute period, are
both critical to initial resuscitation and long-term recovery.
"For example, if CPR was initiated within 4 minutes and
definitive care provided within 8 minutes, 40% of patients were
discharged. If one of those times was exceeded, the percentage of
patients surviving fell dramatically; and if both times were
exceeded, only 10% were discharged."(101)
43
As the study goes on to report " . . time to initiation of CPR
and time to definitive care jointly affect the outcome. If both
intervals are short, the highest survival results. One short
interval without the other is less likely to result in
survival."(102) The joint relationship is shown in figure A2.
This report emphasizes the finding that, "the percentage
discharged fell dramatically within each four -minute interval of
time to initiation of CPR. If time to initiation of CPR was
greater than 12 minutes and time to definitive care greater than
12 minutes, there were no survivors."(102)
Because both elements significantly affect outcome, response
time standards have been recommended for both CPR and ALS Rescue
Unit response.
Comparison With Current Estimated or Average Times
Estimates of the portion of the emergency medical reflex
time directly manageable by Key Biscayne Village, using the data
presented earlier, are summarized in Table A2.
Dispatch of Units
2.5 minutes
Turnout Time
1.5 minutes
Travel Time
3.2 minutes
Setup Time
1.0 minutes
TOTAL
8.2 minutes
Table A2: Estimated Current Average Components of Emergency Medical Reflex
Time Directly Manageable
Notes: 1) Dispatch time is the estimated average for both fire
and rescue incidents.
2) Turnout time is the calculated average for fire and
rescue units.
3) Travel time is the average for first due engine
companies; it is assumed that travel time for first due
units responding to medical incidents would be the
same.
4) Setup time has been estimated at 60 seconds, based on:
44
"field observation, run reports, and discussions with
field personnel indicated that approximately one minute
may elapse between arrival and the initiation of
definitive care." (103)
The average estimated times listed in Table 2 show that the
reflex time standard has already been exceeded, even without the
addition of the time required for detection and reporting.
REDUCTION OF EMERGENCY MEDICAL REFLEX TIME
Because the estimated current emergency medical reflex time
exceeds the recommended standard, it is important to examine all
cf the directly and indirectly manageable time components to
determine where more time savings can be cost-effectively
achieved.
As was the case with fire (i.e., use of automatic detection
and suppression devices), there is a single most important action
which Key Biscayne can take to improve life safety. This action
is to conduct citizen training in cardiopulmonary resuscitation
CPR.
Numerous studies have proven the significant value of CPR
which is immediately initiated by a family member or bystander.
For example,
it is evident that there was a significant
,mprcvement in the percentage of patients who were
initially resuscitated and in the percentage of
patients who became long-term survivors . . . . " (51)
"Whatever the level of the rescuer's training,
immediate CPR can double survival rate after
ventr:cu1ar fibrillation_ while lessening the
neurological damage." (52)
"Only a third of those (patients given immediate
bystander CPR) whom a layman aided died; only a third
of those not given immediate CPR survived." (52)
"The patient group that had been helped by bystander
adMinistered CPR also fared better in quality of
survival." (52)
The Seattle and other programs have shown that citizen CPR
training is feasible. The Seattle Medic II program had a goal of
training all King County residents 12 years of age and older;
training at the rate of 3,500 citizens per month. (53) As of
1978, more than 100,000 citizens had been trained (approximately
45
1/4 of the City's population).
This training has been effective, as demonstrated by the
doubled survival rate quoted above and by:
"Some 34% of all Medic I's cardiac rescue runs are
summoned by a bystander who has started CPR before the
ambulance arrives. " (52)
Additional options which should by considered to reduce the
time to initiation of CPR include:
o Increasing the number of citizens trained in CPR.
o Selective training of family members of high risk patients
o Further enhancements to "instant CPR" instructions that
dispatchers give callers when a cardiac arrest is verified.
o Training all Village employees.
o Selective training of employees and/or office workers in
high occupancy buildings and facilities.
o Public education reinforcements.
Detection
Unfortunately, there is not a device for emergency medical
incidents which is analogous to the smoke detector. There are a
few promising devices that may one day offer high risk cardiac
patients a reliable mechanism to detect the onset of potentially
life -threatening arrhythmia; however, a single device to detect
life -threatening emergency medical conditions shows no signs of
becoming available in the near future, therefore, detection is
almost entirely up to the patient and/or a bystander, and Key
Biscayne can do little to reduce detection times, except for
public education.
It is recommended that Key Biscayne Village initiate a public
education program which will support the rapid detection of life
critical symptoms.
Reporting
Direct -line (or automatic dialer) emergency medical
reporting systems are currently available, but generally are used
only by persons with a high risk medical history. As with fire
reporting, there is probably little that the Village can do to
further reduce reporting time for the general population except
public education.
46
Dispatch
The discussion of the need for the CAD system is also
applicable to emergency medical reflex time.
Turnout and Travel Time
These reflex time components are generally the same as those
for fire incidents.
Setup Time
Typical emergency medical setup time for definitive patient
care is on the order of 60 seconds; which offers minimal
opportunity for significant reductions.
The following options for decreasing the time to definitive
emergency medical assistance should also be considered:
1! Increasing the number of paramedic certified firefighters.
2) Increasing the number of advanced life support units in
service.
3) Qualifying EMT -A trained personnel to be able to
defibrillate patients using fail-safe defibrillators that
reduce inappropriate use. The State of Florida is, at this
time, approving the use of automatic defibrillators.
4; Decreasing inappropriate calls for service, and selective
dispatch procedures.
COMPARISON OF REFLEX TIME STANDARDS WITH OTHER
JURISDICTIONS
The concept of reflex time is relatively new and has not yet
been adopted by many jurisdictions. Some have. As an example,
Arlington County, Virginia has a fire reflex time goal of 9
minutes.
Most communities have response time goals or objectives
which generally include turnout and travel time, but not dispatch
or setup times.
A report by the Research Triangle Institute contained the
results of a nationwide survey of over 1,200 fire departments
which included information on response time. Average and maximum
response times were given by population categories, and are
listed in Table 3. (54) For this survey, response time was
defined as turnout time, plus travel time. It should be noted
47
that data available for the Key Biscayne area includes only
turnout and travel times.
Population
5-10,000
10-25,000
25-50,000
50-
100,000
Over
100,000
Ave.
Response
Time
4.2
4.5
3.4
3.1
3.2
Maximum
Response
Time tc
any mart c‘{
nay:n.
.t_act..reE
9.1
7.4
6.9
6.0
7.7
TABLE A3: Average and Maximum Fire Response Times Based on a Nationwide
Survey
Response time goals identified in the course of this project are
listed in Table A4. These times include turnout, plus travel
time.
JURISDICTION
RESPONSE GOAL
Baltimore County
4 minutes (EMS)
Contra Costa County
5 minutes (Urban)
10 minutes (Rural)
Palm Beach
4 minutes Average
5 minutes Maximum
Orange County (FL)
6 minutes (BLS)
Arlington County
(subset of reflex time)
5-7 minutes Average
Mt. View, CA (EMT)
Paramedics
3 minutes Average
4 minutes Maximum
5 minutes Average
10 minutes Maximum
TABLE A4: Response Time Goals for Other Jurisdictions
A number of studies involving medical units produced
mean/median response times of less than five minutes with
geographically dispersed units.(55)
48
Comparing data from other jurisdictions to the recommended
fire and emergency medical response times yields the following
conclusions:
1) Arlington County is the only known jurisdiction with a
reflex time goal and it is identical to the recommended fire
reflex time standard.
2) The remaining data pertaining only to response time
(turnout plus travel) and the current estimated time for the
Key Biscayne area for first due units is similar.
49
RECOMMENDED APPARATUS/PERSONNEL
ASSIGNMENT STANDARDS
Discussion of Fire Suppression Apparatus/Personnel Assignment
Issues
These standards are concerned with the kinds and numbers of
apparatus and personnel (i.e., fire Suppression and rescue
companies) that should respond to fire and rescue incidents. Such
standards are used by every fire department (although not
necessarily called "standards"), and generally specify the
numbers and types of companies required, as well as, the total
number of personnel needed on the fire ground.
Some fire departments establish these incident assignment
standards for various alarm levels (e.g., first alarm, second
alarm, etc.), although the trend is to define full first alarm
assignment with additional resources requested on an individual
basis.
Standards for first alarm assignments are of course, a
function of the characteristics and fire hazards in the
community. However genera] guidelines and criteria for
establishing these standards are prevalent in the fire service
literature. For example:
High Hazard Occupancies
4 engines 2 trucks, and 2 chief officers with a total of 26
personnel
Medium Hazard Occupancies
3 engines 1 truck, and 1 chief officer with a total of 17
personnel
Low Hazard Occupancies
2 engines, 1 truck, and 1 chief officer with a total of 13
personnel (85)
Similar criteria are presented in numerous other documents,
and it is understood that they are generally based on building
fire flow requirements. "Fire flow" is defined as the estimated
water delivery rate in gallons per minute required to provide
adequate fire protection for a specified structure. (84)
Fire flow estimates for a building are calculated using a
50
formula which is based on 1450 actual fire flows as plotted with
respect to total] building floor area. (84)
The formula takes into account the following factors:(87)
a) effective floor area (considering potential for fire spread)
b) type of construction
c) building use (i.e., fuel loading)
d) exposures (e.g., surrounding structures)
e) combustibly/non-combustible roof
f) presence of automatic suppression system.
It is felt that the fire flow estimate is the best currently
available quantitative measure of the fire suppression capability
reacquired for specific buildings. The formula can be used for
ail structures except very high hazard occupancies, such as
lumber yards, petroleum storage, refineries, grain elevators, and
large chemical plants. (88)
When a fire flow requirement has been calculated, the
resources required to deliver that fire flow can be determined.
The results of a number of studies have been used to establish
the relationship between fire flow and corresponding required
resources (e.g. engine and truck companies).(89)
There is little controversy concerning the fire flow defined
resources requirements, especially compared to the controversy
involving response time and company staffing level criteria. The
primary issue which is debated is the need to dispatch a full
firs_ alarm assignment; for example: "A full response is needed
only a small percentage of the time (e.g., 2 or 3 per cent). One
could argue, therefore, that a small initial response should be
sent since it will be adequate such a high percentage of the
time. However, it is those few times a full response is needed
that a quick and complete response by the fire department may
save lives and property." (90)
RECOMMENDED FIRE SUPPRESSION STANDARDS
The approach to setting fire incident assignment standards,
is to establish standards defining the:
"full first alarm assignment based on the resources required to control a
fully -involved structure fire (i.e., an entire building or the area between
four hour fire walls whichever is smaller)."
51
These standards must be established by "class" of fire
department response district. The class represents the magnitude
of the fire risk in the district and permits the establishment of
first alarm assignments that are related to the expected demand
for fire suppression resources.
It is recommended that base level standards be established
for all response districts that have a relatively low fire hazard
level, as defined by: lest than 50% of the unsprinklered
occupancies have a fire flow requirement of no more than 1000 GPM
and there are no high life risk facilities (e.g., schools).
In this class of response district, the recommended first
alarm assignment is:
A minimum of 12 fire fighters (including a minimum of 2 engines, 1 truck,
1 rescue unit and duty officer) meet the 14 -minute (reflex time standard in
90% of dispatches and a 16 -minute (reflex time) standard in 95% of the
cases.
The base assignment standard will provide adequate
protection for typical fires in structures having total floor
areas ranging from 4,000 sq. ft. (high hazard) to 10,000 sq. ft.
(low hazard.(83) (Of course it is always possible to create fire
demands in those structures which exceed the 1000 GPM fire flow
capability -- for example, arson fires involving accelerants and
delayed alarms -- however, the cost of providing the resources
required for such situations, within the stated reflex time, is
generally not considered cost effective.) Thus, the base
standard provides protection for single family residential
neighborhoods, small apartment houses, neighborhood shopping
centers, etc.
Standards for the more involved response districts should
include:
A minimum of 21 fire fighters (including a minimum of 3 engines, 2 trucks,
1 rescue unit, and a duty officer) meet the 14 -minute reflex time in 90% of
the dispatches and a 16 -minute reflex time standard in 95% of the cases.
This assignment standard will provide adequate protection
for typical fires in structures having total floor areas ranging
from 10,000 sq. ft. (high hazard) to 60,000 sq. ft. (low
hazard).(80) Examples of such structures include larger
apartment houses, stores, medium -size office buildings, plants,
etc.
It is recommended that occupancies that have a fire flow
requirement in excess of 2500 GPM, high rise buildings, high life
risk (e.g., hospitals, schools, and nursing homes), and hazardous
52
materials facilities be considered target hazards and be prefire
planned on an individual basis -- that is, that the first alarm
assignment be established as necessary to meet the special
requirements associated with these high risk hazards.
These recommended assignment levels are based on the fire
flow resource requirement table discussed earlier.(91) In
addition, it is felt that the requirement for personnel is more
important than the exact mix of companies (beyond what is
specified in the standards) that are used to get them to the
fireground. This view is substantiated by a statement in Fire
Attack I: "in the vast majority of instances, the gallons per
minute that can be applied on a fire within a stipulated time
after arrival of the apparatus depends upon the available
manpower, rather than rated pumping capacity."(92)
The first alarm assignments listed above include a rescue
unit with two people minimum staffing. This recommendation is
based upon:
a. two qualified firefighters are needed to provide the total
number of personnel required,
b. the availability of emergency medical personnel on the
fireground would be invaluable for rescue and treatment of
firefighter and civilian injuries,
c. the use of rescue units could satisfy both of those needs;
of course, the inclusion of such units in the first alarm
assignment means that the personnel must be cross -trained
and carry their turnout gear and breathing apparatus.
RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING REDUCTIONS IN FIRE
ASSIGNMENT STANDARDS
If 50% or more of the occupancies in response districts are
fully sprinklered, and there are no high hazard facilities (as
described above), then the standard first alarm assignment would
be reduced to a minimum of seven firefighters (including as a
minimum, 1 engine (with truck capacity), 1 rescue and one command
officer).
If 100% of the occupancies in a response district are fully
sprinklered, and there are no high hazard facilities, then the
standard first alarm assignment could be reduced to a single
engine company (with a minimum staffing level of three).
The nationwide fire suppression crew size survey also
solicited information on standard first alarm assignments.
Results of this survey are present in Table 3. (93)
53
RECOMMENDED EMERGENCY MEDICAL STANDARDS
The recommended initial BLS assignment is one rescue (two
person minimum staffing, both EMT certified). In addition, it is
also recommended that an adaptive dispatch procedure be applied -
- that is, where the prevailing medical condition, number of
patients, or scene circumstances indicate that an engine company
is also needed, then an engine company should be dispatched to
provide additional support. For all other non -critical care
calls, the dispatch of one rescue is recommended.
For advanced life support situations, it is recommended that
one ALS unit (staffed by a minimum of two paramedics) and one
engine company be dispatched. The engine company can rapidly
provide the additional personnel required to handle a full
cardiac arrest. Of course, if a rescue or other type of unit
(with sufficient qualified personnel) can provide a faster
response then they should be utilized.
RESPONSE
SINGLE
FAMILY
MULTIPLE
DWELLING
HIGHRISE
COI* RCIAL/
MERCANTILE
HOSPITAL
No. of
Personnel
Mean
15.1
16.9
21.1
18.4
21.8
Median
14.0
15.0
21.0
17.0
21.0
Range
6-38
7-38
10-46
7-38
7-40
Table A3: First Alarm Assignments Used by Surveyed Departments
54
RECOMMENDED STANDARDS FOR THE
ASSIGNMENT OF FIRE/RESCUE APPARATUS
These standards are concerned with the process of deciding
what types of companies (i.e., apparatus) should be assigned to
stations. These standards are general in nature, and can be used
to determine the needed company complement for any existing or
future station.
ASSIGNMENT OF FIRE SUPPRESSION COMPANIES
The assignment of companies to stations is basically a
function of the characteristics and desired service levels of
each community; and, nationally -accepted standards or criteria
do not exist and are not even applicable, in most cases.
What does exist are general guidelines, such as:
"These (ISO) standards recommend location of stations
and distribution of companies (apparatus and personnel)
based on response time under normal conditions."(80)
Other than response time, recommended factors to be
considered in assigning companies, listed in the literature, are:
a. size and type of district, hazards in district, types of
fires in distriot,(80)
b? specific service delivery ob]ectives for each first due
response area,(80)
c) prefire planning for general and target hazard in each
response area. (82)
Recommended Standard
The approach to setting this standard will be:
"based on a combination of reflex time and apparatus/personnel
standards; that is, when the reflex time and resource requirements
are developed for the service, then, corresponding standards for
assignment of apparatus will be derived."
Thus, this standard is really not independent, but is the
coordinated application of two other standards. In general, this
approach is a combination of the "response time" and "prefire
planning" techniques mentioned above.
55
It is recommended that base standards be established for the
response districts that have a relatively low fire hazard level,
as defined by: less than 50% of the unsprinklered occupancies'
have a fire flow requirement of no more than 1000 GPM, and there
are no high life risk facilities.
In this class of response district, the recommended
standards are:
a) First due engine companies assigned to station so that
the fire reflex time standard is met.
b) Companies providing truck functions assigned to
stations such that these units meet a 14 -minute reflex
time) requirement in 90% of dispatches and a 16 -minute
(reflex time) requirement in 95% of the cases.
c) These companies assigned to stations so that a minimum
of 12 firefighters are available (including a minimum
of 2 engines, 1 truck, 1 rescue, and a command officer)
to meet the 14 -minute (reflex time) standard in 90% of
dispatches and a 16 -minute (reflex time standard in 95%
of the cases.
This base assignment standard will provide adequate
protection for typical fires In structures having total floor
areas ranging from 4,000 sq. ft. (high hazard) to 10,000 sq. ft.
(low hazard).(83) Thus, the base standard provides protection
for single family residential neighborhoods, small apartment
houses, neighborhood shopping centers, etc.
Standards for those districts in which over 50% of the
unsprinklered occupancies have a fire flow requirement over 1,000
GPM, but less than 2,500 GPM. In this class of response
district, the recommended standards are:
a) Four person minimum engine companies assigned to
response areas in which over 50% of the occupancies
have a fire flow requirement in excess of 1000 GPM.
b) Companies providing truck functions assigned to
stations such that these units meet a 14 -minute (reflex
time) requirement in 90% of dispatches and a 16 -minute
(reflex time)requirement in 95% of the cases.
c) These companies are assigned to stations so that a
minimum of 21 firefighters are available (including a
2. Occupancy is defined as the area between four-hour
fire walls, or the entire structure if such fire separations
do not exist.
56
minimum of 3 engines, 2 trucks, and a battalion chief)
and meet the 14 -minute reflex time in 90% of dispatches
and a 16 -minute reflex time standard in 95% of the
cases.
This assignment standard will provide adequate protection
for typical fire's in structures having total floor areas
ranging from 10,000 sq. ft. (high hazard) to 60,000 sq. ft. (low
hazard).(80) Examples of such structures include extremely large
single family residences, larger apartment houses, stores,
medium -size office buildings, plants, etc.
it it recommended that occupancies that have a fire flow
requirement in excess of 2500 GPM, high-rise buildings, high life
risks (e.g., hospitals, schools, all nursing homes), and
hazardous materials facilities be considered target hazards and
be prefire planned on an individual basis -- that is, that the
assignment of companies be adjusted as necessary to meet the
special requirements associated with these high risk hazards.
Assignment of Emergency Medical Units
Basic life support (BLS) and advanced life support (ALS)
units should be assigned to stations such that the emergency
medical reflex time standard is met for all areas of the Village.
Justifications and Comparisons
The justifications for these recommendations are inherent in the
justifications for the standards upon which they are based. In
addition, comparisons with existing Key assignments or
assignments in comparable jurisdictions are not applicable
because they are based or. other service level standards and (in
the case cf comparable jurisdictions) other response district
ha=ar :, and charac t _r _s ti cs .
57
RECOMMENDED FIRE/RESCUE APPARATUS
STAFFING STANDARDS
STAFFING ISSUES
The determination of minimum recommended staffing levels for
fire/rescue companies is probably the single most controversial
issue in the fire service -- especially for engine and truck
companies. This issue is best defined by the question:
"What is the minimum number of personnel required to
safely perform the associated functions of protecting
life and property?"
Note that there are two fundamental factors to be considered
in addressing this question:
1) saving lives, reducing injuries, and protecting property of
the community's residents, and
2) performing this service sanely; that is, without endangering
fire/rescue personnel.
There are no definitive answers to the staffing question
at least, answers that are generally accepted. The following
citations substantiate this conclusion:
"In the final sense, the decisions relating to manpower
levels (and reductions) are made by politicians. In
cases where manpower is reduced gradually, the city was
not summarily or suddenly burnt down. Statements like
"we must have four on an engine and five on a truck"
cannot be backed up with logic because nobody knows
what the optimal staffing of a work unit should be.
Modern fire chiefs must work aggressively in the system
to develop and manage fire force levels that balance
cost and benefit . " (56)
"A number of authors have recommended manning levels
for fire companies . . . but there has been no research
relating to this issue. The more men assigned to each
company, the better its performance when it reaches the
scene. But, assigning more men to each company means
fewer companies and therefore longer response time. In
evaluating the question of how many men to assign, one
must consider not only fire ground performance, but
also the effect on response time. . . . Research is
needed on the manning question, an issue ranked high by
our panel of experts. " (57)
58
In the absence of generally -accepted staffing standards,
fire departments have frequently used the Insurance Services
Office (ISO) Grading Schedule(22) as a justification for fire
company staffing. Previous editions of this Schedule were more
definitive in specifying staffing requirements. For example,
Table A6 lists the staffing requirements contained in the 1956
edition of the Grading Schedule.(14)
FIRE COMPANIES - HIGH VALUE
REQUIRED
STRENGTH
Pumper Company
7
Hose Company
6
Aerial Ladder Company
7
Service Ladder Company
8
Pumper -Ladder Company
10
FIRE COMPANIES - OTHER
DISTRICTS
Pumper Company
5
Hose Company
4
Aerial Ladder Company
6
Service Ladder Company
6
Pumper Ladder Company
8
Pumper Company with Extra
Ladder Equipment
7
TABLE A6: Required Strength of Fire Companies
As stated earlier, the Schedule was developed for insurance
rate setting purposes, and not as fire department standards.
Over the past decade, the use of the Grading Schedule as a basis
for fire department planning has declined significantly. In
addition, the ISO has revised its policies concerning the use of
the Schedule. For example, surveying of cities of 500,000 or
more has been discontinued. The rate setting process for these
cities was changed to an actuarial basis and the Schedule was
reduced in scope. The current Grading Schedule is limited to
evaluation of ability to control fires in small to moderate size
structure which require less than 3500 GPM fire flow. The future
of the Grading Schedule in its present form appears to be in
question. (59)
A comprehensive nationwide survey of fire suppression
59
company staffing was conducted in 1982, which included a question
pertaining to the criteria used by each department to establish
staffing levels. Respondents stated that ". . . budget
considerations, crew safety and departmental operation or
tactical policy were among the most important criteria in
determining their department's current suppression crew sizes."
It was interesting to note that most of these respondents also
reported that "OSHA, mutual assistance, national studies, and
NFPA recommendations had not been important criteria in
determining existing crew size.(60)
Various fire protection publications list recommended
staffing levels, such as:
Fire Attack 11(23)
Municipal Fire Administration(63)
Training Standard on initial Fire Attack (64)
Urban Guide for Fire Prevention and Control Master
Planning (total personnel requirements based on fire
flow)(24)
In general, such recommendations are either based on the ISO
Grading Schedule, or are not quantitatively substantiated. In
addition, the marginal utility of alternative staffing levels is
not discussed.
Individual local governments have attempted to establish
their own suppression staffing standards; notably, West
Allis/West Milwaukee, Wisconsin (65); Dallas (66, 67); Seattle
(68) ; and Los Angeles (26) . The Dallas studies are probably the
most frequently referenced, and are based on the total time
required to complete a defined evolution. The Los Angeles City
Fire Department used normalized activities to compare the
effectiveness of different staffing levels.
RECOMMENDED STANDARDS FOR SUPERVISION AND SUPPORT
PERSONNEL
Field Supervision
Field supervision in the fire/rescue services normally
involves a combination of management, administrative, and
incident command duties. Such supervision (to varying degrees) is
required for all fire/rescue departments.
The number of field supervisors required for a particular
situation is usually based upon "span -of -control." In general,
span -of -control is defined as the number of persons supervised
60
or managed by one individual. For field supervision in the
fire/rescue service, the definition is tailored to be "the
number of fire/rescue companies supervised by one individual."
These companies may be a combination of engine, truck, rescue
or special purpose units. Because each company is led by a
company officer, the span -of -control can be considered as
covering the supervision of these officers.
Field supervisors often carry the title of Duty Officer, but
Captain, Division Chief, District Chief, and others are also used
in other jurisdictions. Fire/rescue agencies that have a number
of field supervisors may require a second level of field
supervision; that is, a chief officer, to manage the field
supervisors. Titles for this position also vary, but are
frequently "Division" or "District" chiefs.
Field supervisors frequently work shift duty, i.e., one
individual for each shift, such that the position is filled
24 hours per day. However, some departments assign this
supervisor to normal business hours, with the individual on
call during off -hours for incident command.
Another variation sometimes used is to split the normal
field supervision functions (listed above) to establish two
positions:
1) One supervisor handles management and administrative duties,
and works normal business hours,
2 A second field supervisor works shift duty, and primarily
handles incident command duties.
An Executive Development III Research Project for the
National Fire Academy produced a comparison of the results of the
Wisconsin, Los Angeles, Seattle, and (first) Dallas studies.(70)
These results were converted to a common measure of effectiveness
for a given staffing level. This measure relates the time taken
to achieve a specific objective or group of objectives. The
shortest time required for a set of evolutions is normalized to
the value 1.0. Table A7 Contains the results of this comparison:
The authors conclude that there is a very strong positive
correlation among these results, and state that "Despite the
variation in method, technology, and reporting method, all
tests indicate that increased staffing increases engine company
capability".(98)
Such studies still do not address the question of the
cost-effectiveness of alternative staffing levels, or of fire
protection programs, i.e., the issue of investing resources in
public educator., fire prevention, built-in detection and
suppression systems, and for EMS citizen CPR training.
61
STAFFING
LEVEL
WISCONSIN
DALLAS
LOS ANGELES
SEATTLE
6
-
-
-
1.0
5
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.79
4
0.73
0.59
0.75
0.49
3
0.65
0.34
0.46
0.45
TABLE A7: Comparison of Results of Staffing Studies
Thus, each community establishes its own level of
suppression capability (sometimes by default) based upon a
combination of such factors as:
a) budget limitations
b) employee agreements
c) community fire risks
d) total number of companies available (i.e., higher staffing
vs fewer companies, or vice versa)
e) ISO, NFPA, or other criteria.
The result of suppression crew size decision making is that
crew sizes from one to eight firefighters(61) can be found
on comparable apparatus -- with some correlation with
community size, but not necessarily with fire load. (62)
Rescue Unit Staffing
The issue of staffing levels for emergency medical units
(BLS and ALS) is not as controversial nor as extensively
discussed in the literature. However, nationally accepted
staffing standards for these units also do not exist. For the
most part, communities establish their own emergency medical
staffing standards (frequently based on state health department
requirements) which are generally at the following levels:
BLS - 2 persons (usually EMT's)
ALS - 3 persons (1 or more paramedics).
It is felt that the reason for this consistency in staffing
is that standard emergency medical functions are relatively easy
to define, at least as compared to engine or truck company
62
functions -- that is, there is general agreement that two
properly trained medics are required to perform specific life
critical functions, etc.
Many states (e.g., Florida) hove established a minimum
staffing level of two for emergency medical units.(69)
Even with the existence of state standards and the general
agreement on current staffing levels, the cost effectiveness of
alternative levels has apparently not been addressed.
APPROACH TO SETTING MINIMUM FIRE/RESCUE APPARATUS
STAFFING STANDARDS FOR THE VILLAGE OF KEY BISCAYNE.
Considering the limited scope and schedule associated with
this project and the demonstrated difficulty in setting rigorous
quantitative staffing standards, it is recommended that staffing
standards for engine, truck and rescue units be based on: the
minimum number of personnel required to safely perform a basic
function critical to the protection of life and property. For
structural fire incidents, this basic function will vary by the
level of risk prevailing in a given area of the Village. The
emergency medical functions will be for: (1) Basic Life Support
(ELS, and (2) Advanced Life Support (ALS).
The established functions to be used in deriving the
staffing standards are:
FIRE SUPPRESSION
Engine Function
Enter a smoke -filled commercial building and put a 200 GPM stream into
operation with engine operating from hydrant.
Truck Function
Aerial to roof of three-story building, commence ventilation.
The 100 GPM stream capacity is sufficient to control and
knockdown a fully involved room fire in a typical dwelling. A
two hundred GPM stream is required to establish an initial
exposure protection or initial attack upon a fully involved
compartment fire in a typical commercial building.
Truck functions generally include ventilation, utilities
control, forcible entry, search and rescue, and salvage.
However, it is felt that the initial function most critical to
reducing life and property loss is ventilation.
63
EMERGENCY MEDICAL
Basic Life Support (BLS) Function
Successfully conduct a patient assessment and initiate CPR when cardiac
arrest conditions are established.
Advanced Life Support (ALS) Function
Successfully conduct a patient assessment and initiate definitive care
measures to intubate, defibrillate, and medicate a patient in the field, and
transport the patient to the hospital.
Note that the emergency medical functions were selected
because they represent the base level of performance associated
with first -due engine, truck, BLS, and ALS operations.
RECOMMENDED ENGINE/TRUCK FUNCTION STAFFING
STANDARDS
Engine Function
Because of the qualification that all functions be
accomplished "safely" and because the function specifies that
firefighters enter a smoke filled room, there is no choice but
that the minimum staffing be three firefighters. This conclusion is
based on Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
regulations that a two -person team is required to enter a toxic
atmosphere, and a third safety person must remain outside to call
for help if necessary.(71) It turns out that three firefighters
are also required from a water delivery standpoint, based on the
estimate of 35 GPM delivery capability per firefighter.(77)
(This rate is increased when master streams are used.) Moreover,
two firefighters are required to maneuver a 1 1/2" or 1 3/4"
line, which, when combined with a pump operator, also results in
a three person (minimum) company.(73)
It is recommended that first due engine companies, with
response districts wherein over 50% of the unsprinklered
occupancies have a fire flow requirement over 1000 GPM, such as
some of the larger homes on the Key and some of the condominiums,
have minimum staffing level of four firefighters. The fourth
person is needed to release the Company officer for incident
Command duties (until relieved by a duty officer. In high hazard
areas, i.e. multi -story buildings, the other units of the first
alarm assignment will more likely be needed, and overall
coordination of all resources will be essential to effective
operations.
64
Truck Function
The recommended minimum staffing level for performing the listed truck
functions is three. Note that the recommended reflex time for truck
functions is the same as for the first alarm assignment;
therefore, the full personnel complement will be on scene to
assist with other truck functions as necessary.
When operating as the current service does within the
Village, a combined system of incident command, truck, engine,
rescue and incident command functions are combined within the two
units located at Station 15.
The ultimate goal is to place the needed number of personnel
at the scene of an incident within a given period of time to
perform required tasks. With the exception of the first due
unit, numbers of personnel arriving per vehicle is less important
than the total which arrive, and the quality of incident scene
management. Minimum crew size is generally accepted to be three
based upon the need to have two personnel operate as a team in a
hostile atmosphere with one safety person outside (such as a
technician operating a pumper).
Recommended Emergency Medical Unit Staffing Standards
A minimum staffing level of three paramedic personnel is recommended
as the distance for additional units to respond is significant.
Although there are a limited number of calls within the Village,
support units will take a considerable amount of time to reach
the scene.
Comparison With Other Jurisdictions
The nationwide survey of fire suppression crew sizes
resulted in a calculated average staffing level of 3.6 for both
engine and truck companies.(74) This report also states that a
ma:ority of the responding fire departments (in cities of at
least 100,000 population) have engine and truck crews of four or
five. The survey also collected data on "minimum crew size"
which is defined as the level below which a company is considered
too small to operate. Table A8 contains the percentages of
responding departments which hove adopted the corresponding
minimum crew sizes.(75)
Note that not one department specified five firefighters as
a minimum crew size. About 60% of the respondents would
"sometimes" permit an understaffed company to remain in
service.(75)
65
MINIMUM COMPANY CREW SIZE
ONE
TWO
THREE
FOUR
ENGINE
COMPANIES
2%
43%
49%
6%
LADDER
COMPANIES
11%
31°%
40%
15%
Table A8: Reported Minimum Company Size Crews
The survey of comparable jurisdictions conducted as part
of this study produced the following staffing levels:
ENGINE
TRUCK
RESCUE
JURISDICTION
Baltimore Co.
4
5
2
Fairfax Co.
2
Orange Co.
(CAL)
3
3
Palm Beach Co.
3
3
2
Riverside Co.
2
Prince William
Co.
4
out of
service
below 3
4
_
2
Table A9: Staffing Goals
Most of these staffing levels were reported to be "goals" or
"guidelines" rather than rigid standards. There is one exception
to this conclusion which was identified, Anaheim, California,
where the department has a five-year written contract with the
City Council guaranteeing a minimum staffing level of four for
both engines and trucks.
66
APPENDIX B
CONSOLIDATION OF POLICE
AND FIRE SERVICES (114)
The consolidation of police protection and fire fighting is
not a new idea. Combined police and fire fighting services have
been in effect in the United States for almost 80 years. But it
was the Roman Emperor Augustus who created the first combined
service in 27 B.C. when he formed the vigiles, a group of men
armed with batons and short swords who were responsible for
keeping the order and fighting fires. (111) Japan and Germany
experimented with consolidation during the years preceding World
War II when fire departments were made into divisions of police
departments. Since then, however, fire fighting in Japan and
Germany has been separated from the police department in an
organization similar to most municipalities. Britain also
consolidated fire and police services prior to World War II but
these forces proved inadequate during war -time bombings and a
national fire service was formed. After the war, fire fighting
was taken over by local municipalities, but Parliament passed a
law forbidding consolidation of the two services. (108) .
In the United States, the pros and cons of consolidation
have been debated for many years. In fact, records show that the
organization which preceded the International Association of Fire
Chiefs passed a resolution against consolidation more than 80
years ago. (111) However, this did not prevent cities in the
early twentieth century from consolidating their services. In
1911, Grosse Point Shores in Michigan became the first U.S. city
to consolidate its police and fire fighting services. (1108)
Since 1911, some cities have continued to consolidate these
services. Generally, it was small suburban areas or residential
communities with little crime and few fires which chose to
consolidate. Consolidation became more attractive in the 1950s
and 1960s due to rising costs, city expansion, rising crime
rates, and the increasingly popular argument that the working
hours of fire fighters were not fully utilized. (108) Cities
have continued to consolidate services for many of these same
reasons. Twelve cities consolidated services between 1970 and
1976 according to a 1977 Laurie Frankel survey of consolidated
services in cities with populations of 10,000 and more.
Consolidated departments vary in their organization from one
city to another. Some departments stress police work and assign
fire fighters police duties. Other programs emphasize fire
fighting. In these programs, police must assist fire fighters at
the scene of a fire. (110) More (11) has listed five levels of
consolidation: full consolidation, partial consolidation,
selected -area consolidation, functional consolidation, and
67
nominal consolidation:
1 Services are fully consolidated when police and fire
fighting duties are combined under a single agency
called the Department of Public Safety. Officers,
usually called public safety officers, perform both
police and fire fighting duties. A small number of
officers remain at the fire station to maintain
equipment and drive the fire truck while the rest do
regular police work and fire prevention.
2 Partial consolidation exists when police and fire
fighting services remain separate except for a special
patrol of public safety officers which performs both
police and fire fighter duties. The police department
gives these officers orders when they are engaged in
police work while the fire chief supervises them when
they are acting as fire fighters.
3 A city has selected -area consolidation when police and
fire departments remain separate except for specially
trained public safety officers who are assigned to work
in limited geographical areas of the community, usually
areas newly annexed to the municipality.
4 If fire and police departments remain separate, but
some duties normally performed by one department are
assigned to the other, the city has functional
consolidation. For example, fire fighters may help in
administering police work. Or police officers may
assist fire fighters by reading gauges or hooking up
hoses at the scene of a fire.
5 Nominal consolidation occurs when the police and fire
departments are separate but operate under the
administrative control of a single public safety
director.
The 1977 survey showed that in cities with populations of
10,000 and more, 11 had full consolidation, 5 had partial
consolidation, 2 had selected -area consolidation, 6 had
functional consolidation, and 19 had nominal consolidations which
had been erroneously identified as police and fire consolidation.
The rising costs of maintaining and manning two separate
public safety departments is the major reason city officials seek
alternatives to the standard organizations. Consolidation is
appealing when cities can cut costs without reducing the quality
of their protective services. Cities that want to expand or
improve their police and fire fighting services often find
consolidation as attractive possibility. Urban growth is often
accompanies by more crime and taller, less accessible buildings.
68
These conditions increase the demand for police and firefighters,
for higher pay, and for better fringe benefits and more
sophisticated equipment. By combining police and fire fighting
services, city officials can expand and upgrade their public
safety services without a corresponding increase in costs. (110)
The demand •for a shorter work week, especially by
firefighters, has also prompted cities to consolidate in order to
reduce costs. Traditionally, fire departments have operated on a
24 hour shift with firefighters working more hours per week than
any other municipal employee. Since 1954, however, the average
number of hours firefighters work per week has gradually been
reduced. Shorter work weeks necessitate the hiring of more
people to maintain the same level of service. When the budget is
limited, hiring additional persons is out of the question. It is
at this point that consolidation becomes attractive. (111)
proponents of consolidation claim that this type of
organization makes productive use of the time that firefighters
spend waiting for fires to break out. Under consolidation,
firefighters are engaged in a variety of police duties.
Proponents argue that recent technological advances in
communications systems enable a minimum number of persons to man
the fire apparatus. Thus, the number of workers needed to remain
at the fire station is reduced. This frees firefighters to carry
out police patrols in radio -equipped patrol cars which contain
equipment for both police work and fire fighting. These patrol
cars may reach the scene of a fire before or at the same time as
the fire apparatus. (108) Proponents also argue that because
police work and fire fighting are such similar activities,
consolidation is a logical move. Both services preserve the
public safety. Both groups prevent crime and fires and handle
emergencies. Both are public organizations funded by municipal
revenues. both have paramilitary structures. (111) Furthermore,
the to services often overlap one another. For instance, at a
mayor fire, police are needed to control traffic and crowds.
Firefighters and police officers both respond to serious traffic
accidents because fire fighting equipment may be needed to
extinguish automobile fires or to hose down the area to prevent
fie. The two services overlap in ambulance calls, in response to
explosions, and in arson investigation. (111)
Resistance to consolidation has come from several
professional organizations including the International
Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC), the International Association
of Fire Fighters (IAFF), the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA), and the American Insurance Association (AIA). Opposition
has also come from firefighters and local fire unions and
associations, police officers and police unions and associations,
and citizens who fear a reduction in services and safety. More
firefighters oppose consolidation than police officers, primarily
because consolidation upsets the job and work schedules of
69
firefighters more than police officers. The 24 hour workday for
firefighters is usually abolished. (111) Not surprisingly,
cities which seek to merge police and fire fighting services
almost always confront intense union opposition. (113) The IAFF
has opposed consolidation for many years. The association passed
its first resolution condemning consolidation in 1956 and has
passed similar resolutions in subsequent years. In 1962, the
association created the Committee to Combat Consolidation of Fire
and Police Departments at the biennial convention. The committee
helped local fire department officials across the nation to
defeat consolidation proposals. (111)
Firefighters particularly object to the claim that they are
not productive while waiting for a fire to break out. They argue
that in a well run fire department, firefighters are busy
preventing fires, inspecting buildings, maintaining equipment and
the station itself, training personnel, and improving efficiency
and effectiveness (108) Firefighters argue that consolidation
will destroy the camaraderie of a fire fighting team by breaking
the company which functions as a basic attack unit at the scene
of a fire. They fear that precious time will be lost when public
safety officers must spend time changing from their police
uniforms into fireproof clothing. They also argue that time is
lost when a patrol car must respond to a fire from a long
distance away. The argue that fire fighting apparatus must
always be ready and manned by a sufficient number of persons for
immediate and effective action. they claim that this is out of
the question if firefighters are out performing police duties.
The firefighters note that delays in the arrival of firefighters
and equipment could result in serious property damage and loss of
life. (108)
A major argument advanced by both police officers and
firefighters is that the degree of specialization inherent in
modern police and fire protection makes the merger of the two
services infeasible. (107) They argue that one individual is not
capable of achieving competence n both areas. Simply stated, one
person cannot perform these two jobs because requires a different
type of individual and a different background of schooling and
training. These opponents of consolidation consider the training
program for public safety officers to be too short and
insufficient for effective performance of both jobs. (108)
Opponents argue that fire insurance companies give consolidated
departments lower ratings. Companies use the Grading Schedule of
the Insurance Services Office to help determine a city's fire
insurance rate. This schedule is a nationally published list of
standards for municipal fire protection and prevention.
Classification is based on the total number of deficiency points
that a city accrues with regard to water supply, fire department,
fire service communications and fire safety control.
Cities with consolidated services usually accrue the
70
greatest number of deficiency points in the category of fire
department. This usually occurs because these cities do not have
at least six persons on duty at all times for each ladder and
engine company. Frankel's survey of consolidated cities
revealed, however, that no city which responded had earned a
worse classification after switching to consolidation. In 15 out
of 20 cities which reported their current classification and
their insurance classification immediately before consolidating,
the classifications remained unchanged. In five out of the 20
cities, the classification improved after they consolidated
services although these cities did not necessarily credit the
improvement to consolidation. (108) The National Board of Fire
Underwriters, which grades cities on their fire service, has not
formally opposed the idea of consolidation. When a consolidated
department must be evaluated, the board has stated that it will
inspect the department, collect all the pertinent facts, and
grade the department using the Standard Grading Schedules. The
board has also stated, however, that it is not enthusiastic about
consolidation. (109)
Consolidation proposals face severe constraints in cities
where police officers and firefighters are organized. The scope
of bargaining of most state labor relations laws would require
that city management negotiate with its employees'
representatives over the impact of consolidation. In some
states, the obligation goes even further. These states require
the city to negotiate over the content of such a program as it
relates to wages, hours, and working conditions and not merely
the impact consolidation may have on these items. If police
officers and firefighters are represented by different employee
organizations, a merger becomes even more fraught with
difficulty. which of these organizations, if either, will
represent the new classification of public safety officers that
is created after consolidation? It is improbable that one union
will step aside for the other or agree to merge. The management
and the employees will usually have to ask a state labor board or
similar administrator of the state labor law to resolve such a
representation.
Careful study and preparation for reorganization saves
money. There are many costs associated with consolidation.
These costs may determine the extent to which consolidation is
even possible. City management must consider comparisons between
short-term and long-term costs. The installation of the program
is an immediate expense but future costs must be estimated as
well. If there is not enough money to pay for the immediate
costs of consolidation, the city must modify the program to
conform to the money available. for example, the initial expense
of purchasing additional patrol cars and outfitting new and
existing cars with fire fighting equipment can limit efforts to
consolidate. Often, cities which want to fully consolidate must
remodel buildings, especially public safety headquarters, to
71
implement the total merger of services through centralized
command units, communications equipment, and records. Remolding
or construction can increase the initial costs significantly.
(106)
Past traditions have been a major stumbling block in the
consolidation of police and fire fighting service. It is not
easy to change long held customs, attitudes and interests.
Police and fire fighting work have become more specialized and
professional over the years. Police officers and firefighters
often fear that with consolidation, one service will become
subordinate to the other, or that both fields of expertise will
be replaced by an entirely new occupation. (106)
CASE STUDIES (115)
Sunnyvale Model
Sunnyvale (California) is a good model for study for its use
of cross -trained personnel. The pity of about 24 square miles has
a population of just under 120,000 and is located on the
peninsula of the San Francisco Bay region, 44 miles south of San
Francisco and 10 miles northwest of San lose. Its Climate mate of
temperatures between 50 and 70 all year, and its employment
opportunities make it an attractive place for residents. And,
importantly, the city has enjoyed status as one of the nation's
cities with the lowest crime rate (currently 6th lowest in the
nation).
William Borzone serves as the Public Safety Officer for
Planning and Research/recruiting. He explained that in 1950, the
city had a paid police force of about 10-15 members and a
volunteer fire department. City leaders who, Borzone said, "had a
bit of vision," decided to create a public safety department
which would combine the police and fire services into one unit.
The motivation for the decision was mainly one of economics, but
the plan also promised easier administration by placing all
positions under one director.
Sunnyvale's Structure
The present structure of the Sunnyvale Department of Public
Safety sees the Director supervising four departments: Support
Services (facilities, planning, research, training, target range
armory, cadets, property, evidence, records, communications,
personnel, payroll, and statistics); Police Services (crime scene
coordination, police in-service training, patrol, vehicles, court
liaison, traffic, investigations, and clerical); Community
Services (crime prevention, neighborhood resource officers, com-
72
munity service officers, emergency preparedness, and clerical);
and Fire Services (in-service fire training, fire prevention,
hazardous materials and clerical). Each department has its own
commander, captains and lieutenants. A $28 million budget oper-
ates the whole system. The department has 215 sworn and 80
support personnel (including dispatchers, crime prevention and
records). Although members can be rotated from fire to police
responsibilities annually, Borzone explained that usually such
rotations are done every thrice to five years except for those
now to the department. Such newcomers need career development, so
it is likely that their first five years in the department will
see them serving about equal time in fire and police
responsibilities, switching as often as every six weeks or so in
the earliest parts of their careers. Everyone will be rotated a
few times during his/her career exempt for a few individuals who
possess some highly -specialized skills Sue as in hazardous
materials handling, strategic tactics and rescue, field evidence
and aerial/snorkel operator.
Personnel Matters
Assignment schedules vary with the work, but officers on
police duty work 10 -hour shifts for a 40 -hour work week, and
officers assigned to fire duty work 24 -hour shifts to equate to a
56 -hour work week. Six fire stations serve the pity with 14
pieces of fire -fighting apparatus. There are 26 police vehicles,
six motorcycles, 22 other vc.vehicles and six support vehicles.
Because the responsibility of performing both police and fire
duties is a serious one to the person considering such a career
option, it is Sunnyvale's policy to offer excellent salary and
benefit opportunities to its public safety officers. The city's
wage scales have averaged about 11% more than the typical police
salaries in comparable neighboring jurisdictions. Borzone says
starting members will earn about $40,000 during their training
period, and non -probationary officers average $55,000. Extra pay
is given in lieu of 12 holidays per year, for specialist
assignments and for overtime. Compensatory time off is offered in
lieu of overtime. Vacation leave is 11 days per year at the
start, 16 days after five years, 21 days aft a 10 years, and 26
days after 25 years. A full program of health, dental, mental
health, life, and long term disability insurance is offered, as
is membership in the public employees' retirement system. Uni-
forms are provided by the city.
An equal number of lateral entry Level are hired as entry
level personnel and the new recruit attends both the police and
the fire academies. The police training program runs bout four
and a half months and the fir training program about three
months. Then come 12 to 18 months with a field training officer
before the new officer is on his/her own. Because cross -trained
personnel need more time for initial and probationary period
training, Sunnyvale makes it a practice to have about ten members
73
in training to take care of attrition, disability and retirement
of serving members of the department. Thus the city is not caught
with a lack of personnel when turn -over occurs.
The requirements for minimum qualifications for officers in
training include 48 semester or 72 quarter units in college, or
two years of experience in police or fire work, between the ages
of 21 and 59 at the time of appointment, U.S. citizenship,
uncorrected minimum vision of 20140 in both eyes and not less
than 20/50 individually, good character and class A medical
standard, and possession of a valid California driver's license.
For lateral entry, the candidate must have completed two years of
college and have two years of current police experience and/or
three years fire experience. The other requirements are basically
the same as entry level candidates.
Says Borzone, "It has been a good place to work and we don't
have any trouble attracting people," But he admits that if
Sunnyvale were to adopt the program now, the city would face far
higher costs of a change -over, and probably opposition from
unions; perhaps even from lateral -entry individuals who might
have what he called "a different mind set" in seeing the police
and fire functions as separate and distinct and not functions to
be carried out by the same person. Borzone thinks that the fact
that Sunnyvale adopted the program over 40 years ago accounts, in
part, for the success it has enjoyed. And the cross -trained
personnel save Sunnyvale about five to eight million dollars
annually.
How It Works
Two people are assigned to each piece of fire equipment and
patrol officers supplement that basic crew. When a call for fire
service arises, the patrol officer(s) responding join their
fellow officers on the scene, place their holsters and police
equipment in the trunk of the patrol car and retrieve their fire
gear, including turnout coat, from the trunk. The initial attack
and knock down of the fire is done, then the patrol officers
return to their duty while the fire rig personnel carry on the
salvaging and overhauling following the fire. If the patrol
officers need to clean up after the fire work, they go either to
a fire station or the Civic Center headquarters for a shower and
clean-up.
Sunnyvale's typical year sees about 5,000 calls for fire
service which breaks down to about 3,800 medical emergencies, 200
structure fires, and about less than 30 actual working fires; the
remainder of calls being hazardous materials or false alarms and
"other."
Borzone said the city has a residential sprinkler
74
requirement ordinance for all new construction and remodeling,
and has strict hazardous materials and toxic gas ordinances. The
city also requires non-combustible roofing material. He said such
ordinances have led the way to about one -tenth the fires the city
had compared to about ten years ago. "We just don't have
commercial fires, as we used to," he said. Because the city has
many research and development companies (the "Silicon Valley"),
there are increased calls for service regarding hazardous
materials. The city employs five civilian chemists as hazardous
materials inspectors who work in cooperation with the Public
Safety Department's planning, review and enforcement personnel.
As to any "them and us" feelings between police and fire
personnel, Borzone says that problem is nearly eliminated by
means of cross -trained personnel. The officers "all know one
another, do the same job, and there are no conflicts and no
personality clashes," he says.
Public acceptance of the cross -trained personnel is
excellent. The city's total strength of officers is rated at 2.32
per 1,000 population.
The Drawback
One drawback for Sunnyvale has been the fact that it has not
been too successful in recruiting interested female applicants.
Borzone says the city's female applicants have sought the police
work, but are not as keen about the fire work. Thus the city has
only five women in its 215 sworn personnel, but Borzone adds that
those five "do the job really well." In fact, he says, the women
of the force are usually superior in performance of duties and
have been top cadets in the academy sessions.
The Kalamazoo Model
Yet another success story is Kalamazoo (Michigan) which has
a population of about 200,000 in its metropolitan area of about
36 square miles. David Weessies is the city's Assistant Chief for
its Public Safety Department and he has been on the staff for 26
years. His department studied Sunnyvale's example and other
cities before making the change to cross -trained personnel.
The program started in 1982 and took several years to
implement fully in order to accommodate training needs. There are
325 members of the department, 265 of which are sworn. A! -out 22
members of the fire service are strictly assigned to that service
because of the nature of their Sob in equipment operation. Other
than that, public safety officers are fully trained even for the
specialized areas such as hazardous materials, special weapons
and tactics, and bomb team work. After ten years of operation of
the cross training system, only about 23 of the personnel are not
75
cross trained.
Kalamazoo, like Sunnyvale, has found the system to be cost
effective and able to provide more service and cut response time.
The city received 3,236 fire calls, including 181 actual working
fires, 92 vehicle fires, 85 grass fires, and 2,874 medical
rescues.
Like Sunnyvale's personnel, when patrol officers are called
to the scene of a fire, their police equipment is stowed in the
trunk of the car and, in exchange, out comes the gear and other
equipment for fire fighting.
New recruits undergo about six months of academy training
and in house work, then are assigned to a field training officer
for about one year of probationary status.
In adopting the change, traditional frustrations in
implementation took time to work out - "growing pains," Weessies
calls it. Through collective bargaining, much of the problem with
the changeover was worked out by bringing frustrations and
concerns to the bargaining table. "It has taken time both ways
for both disciplines to adjust," said Weessies, but the
change -over has proven effective for the city. An independent
study in 1987 showed the city was spending $2 million less than
the original estimated cost for the system. The public service
department operates on a budget of $21.7 million.
Weessies says it is "rare" to receive a citizen complaint
about slow response time. The city has also consistently been
below the national index in its crime rate something
administrators feel may be to the credit of the cross -trained
personnel system.
Unlike Sunnyvale, Kalamazoo has not had a problem in hiring
female officers. One or two of every ten new recruits is a woman.
Like Sunnyvale, Kalamazoo uses tough sprinkler, hazardous
materials and similar ordinances, meets standards for OSHA and
Michigan's OSHA, and offers above average pay and benefits to its
public safety officers. "We feel like we're moving in the right
direction," says Weessies, and the statistics are bearing out
that view in both cost-effectiveness and efficiency.
The Peoria Experience
On the other side of the coin is Peoria (Illinois) where
Police Sergeant Larry Hammer says the city once had cross -trained
personnel, but abandoned the system in 1971. The emphasis in
Peoria was on training the city's nearly 100 police officers at
that time to take on some fire -fighting duties. The officers were
76
called "Coops," short for "co-operative patrol officers." Each
officer was assigned to a fire engine as the third person on that
engine. Fire equipment was carried in the trunk of the patrol car
and the officer changed at the scene.
The program did save Peoria money, but was eventually phased
out when more fire personnel were hired, thus lessening the need
for cross -trained personnel.
But Hammer says the training he received as a "coop" has
continued to be of benefit to him in rescue work he may be called
upon to perform in the course of his police duties. "A lot of
what was taught made a lot of sense for a police officer to
know," he said. Such as, how to and how not to access a fire
scene, how to deal with certain types of fires and toxic gases,
how to access buildings, how to bail out from tall buildings and
how to tie a variety of knots.
Cross -training can be right for a community, but
administrators would be wise to study the system carefully before
making a decision.
77
PUBLIC SAFETY OFFICER
Description of Work
General duties involve law enforcement, fire and rescue work and
service to the community by providing for the protection of life
and property through the enforcement of laws and in the exercise
of sound judgment in seeing to the safety and welfare of the
community, the control of fire, the performance of emergency
medical treatment and rescue, and the response to other service
calls for assistance within the guidelines of law and
departmental Policy.
This work involves four major elements all of which are
inter -related within the context of the Public Safety Department
mission: the first element requires performance of regular
preventive police patrol following assignments received from
superiors. The second element involves responding to fires either
from police patrol duties or from standby duties with an aim
toward extinguishment of such fires as is required and as may be
assigned through departmental policy or orders from a commanding
officer. The third element involves responding to calls for
emergency medical treatment and rescue either from police patrol
duty or standby duty and caring for any sick or injured persons
as is within departmental guidelines seeing to such persons safe
removal to nearby treatment facilities. The fourth element
involves the application of special skills as may enhance the
mission of the department and the general public safety and
welfare of the community.
The law enforcement element of work normally consists of
routine patrol, enforcement of state and local ordinances, and
the performance of investigative duties on an assigned relief,
normally performed in a radio equipped police cruiser and/or by
walking an assigned beat. The fire control work element involves
responding to fire alarms within fire fighting duties as assigned
either at the scene or by prearranged departmental policy with an
aim toward extinguishment and overhaul of such fires. The
emergency medical treatment and rescue element involves
responding to emergency calls for assistance wherein sick or
injured persons are given emergency treatment at the scene and/or
en route to a hospital.
Officers perform related work as may be assigned and may be
required to undergo special training and may be given special
assignments requiring special skills including, but not limited
to, assignment to any one or more of the following:
78
Detective - Public Safety Officers may be assigned to the
Investigative Services Division or within each crew to plain-
clothes investigative duty. Officers so assigned are responsible
for blueprint investigation and follow up of all Part 1 and other
serious crimes as determined by their command officer. Officers
so assigned work under the office of Community Safety and are
responsible for blueprint investigations, follow-up
investigations, intelligence gathering and other work related to
in-depth, specialized evidence gathering and criminal
investigations and clearance of crimes and arrests of criminals
Officers assigned to this specialized task must remain
competent in the job requirements of Public Safety Officer while
serving in the office of the Community Safety and may from time
to tire be called upon to support personnel assigned to the
Operations Division.
Fire Engineer - Officers may be assigned as fire engineers whose
primary responsibility is the maintenance of all fire and rescue
equipment. They serve as primary fire apparatus, drivers and pump
operators to any fire scene and are responsible for water flow,
equipment inventory, and fire ground assistance at such scenes.
Operators are also routinely responsible for the up -dating and
maintenance of the department's fire run file.
Fire/housing Inspector - Officers may be assigned as inspection
officers who on a complaint basis or through a preassigned
schedule see to the inspection of structures within the community
tc determine whether or not such structures are in compliance
with the State of Ohio and City of Oakwood Fire and Housing Code.
Paramedics - Officers may be assigned paramedic officers whose
responsibility will be to provide special skills and utilize that
special equipment as are authorized under Standing Medical Orders
of the City of Oakwood Health District. Paramedics shall also be
responsible for the routine maintenance of ambulance and medical
inventory of equipments.
Officers may also receive special assignments requiring
specialized ability or knowledge, though previous preparation is
normally available through training courses undertaken while on
the job. Both general and special assignments and instructions
are received from a command officer, who reviews work methods and
results through reports, personal inspection and discussion and
counsel. Officers are expected to exercise independent judgment
meeting the majority of normal work situations, and to require
specific guidance from a commanding officer only in very unusual
situations. Responsibilities involve an element of danger and is
characterized by relief rotation.
Public Safety Officers report directly to their crew command
79
officer unless specifically assigned or directed otherwise.
80
APPENDIX C
GLOSSARY
Advance Life Support
(ALS) Function
Base Level
Basic Life Support (BLS)
Function
Class of Fire
Department Response
District
The successful conduct of a patient
assessment and initiation of definitive
care measures to intubate, defibrillate,
and medicate a patient in the field, and
transport the patient to the hospital.
All response districts that have a
relatively low fire hazard level, as
defined by: less than 50% of the un-
sprinklered occupancies have a fire flow
requirement of more than 1000 GPM, and
there are no high life risk facilities
The successful conduct of a patient
assessment and initiation of CPR when
cardiac arrest conditions are
established, or first aid as
appropriate.
The class represents the magnitude of
the fire risk in the district and
permits the establishment of first alarm
assignments that are related to the
expected demand for fire suppression
resources.
CPR Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation.
Detection
Dispatch of Units
EMS
EMT
Engine Function
The period of time from initiation of
event until it is discovered by an
individual who contacts the Dispatch
Center.
The interval between the time a call is
received by the Dispatch Center and
responding units are notified.
Emergency Medical Service.
Emergency Medical Technician.
Enter a smoke -filled commercial building
and put a 200 GPM stream into operation
81
with engine operating from hydrant.
Base
Fire Flow
First Due (primary
response)
Flash over
ICS (Incident Command
System)
Paramedic (EMT -P)
Reflex Time
Report of Alarm
Setup Time
Target Hazards
Enter a smoke -filled dwelling and put a
100 GPM (minimum) stream into operation
with engine operating from hydrant.
The estimated water delivery rate in
gallons per minute required to provide
adequate fire protection for a specified
structure.
First unit due on an incident.
The point at which fire gases and all
combustible surfaces of a room blast
into flame at once.
A process for managing and coordinating
multi -agency and multi -jurisdictional
resources assigned to an incident.
Emergency Medical Technician -Paramedic
An individual trained to provide the
highest level of prehospital advanced
life support.
Fire - The time period from ignition to
application of extinguishing agent.
Emergency Medical - The time from
occurrence to initiation of field
emergency medical definitive care.
(Reflex time includes all of the
components of the time period between
occurrence and initiation of public
service assistant)
The period of time from discovery of a
fire/emergency medical incident until it
is reported to the dispatch center.
The period of time from arrival on scene
until suppression or medical treatment
activities are initiated.
Occupancies having a fire flow
requirement in excess of 2500 GPM, high
rise buildings, high life risks (e.g.,
hospitals, schools, and nursing homes),
82
and hazardous materials facilities.
Travel Time
Truck Function
Turnout Time
Urban Class
Work Input Persons
The time required for the unit to drive
to the scene of the incident.
Aerial to roof of three-story building,
commence ventilation.
Base: Accomplish rooftop ventilation for
a two-story dwelling.
The time period that begins with the
receipt of an alarm at a station and
ends when the fire/rescue vehicle leaves
the station.
All response districts in which over 50%
of the unsprinklered occupancies have a
fire flow requirement over 1000 GPM, but
less than 2500 GPM.
Individuals (career and volunteer)
within a corporation who directly_
contribute to the administrative/
clerical workload; that is, persons who
generate administrative/ clerical work
and submit it to the support staff for
processing.
83
APPENDIX D
References
1. Recommendations for Fire and Rescue Services for the Village of
Key Biscayne. 1/27/92. Fire and Rescue Committee of the Village
Board of Trustees.
2 Fire and Rescue Services Currently Provided by Metro -Dade Fire
Department to Key Biscayne. 1991. Key Biscayne Council Report
prepared by the Fire and Rescue Transition Committee.
3 The Case for Public Safety. Report
4 Law Enforcement Transition Committee Report to the Key Biscayne
Board of Trustees, 4/28/92.
5 Summary Report - Key Biscayne Fire and Rescue Services
Transitional Committee.
6 Option D - Establishment of a Key Biscayne Fire/Rescue Service.
Key Biscayne Volunteer Fire Department. 2/19/91.
7 Final Report - Fire and Rescue Committee.
8 Proposed Recommendaton to the Village of Key Biscayne Board of
Trustees from Fire/Rescue Committee.
9. Village of Key Biscayne - Fire Cost Analysis.
10. Letter, City of Miami, RE: Fire Service Proposal. 1/7/93.
11. "Decision -Aiding Tools In Urban Public Safety Systems," Larson,
Richard C., Sloan Management Review, Winter 1972-73.
12. Fire Protection and Local Government: An Evaluation of
Policy -Related Research, Swersey, Arthur, Ed. al, The New York
City Rand Institute, September 1975, p. v.
13. Wingspread II Conference Report, The Johnson Foundation, 1971
14. A Program Alan for the NFPCA Fire Technology Master Plans, Ryland
Research, Inc., September, 1975.
15. Contribution to a National Fire Research and Development Policy,
International City Management Association, Washington, D.C.,
1979.
16. Fire Risk Analysis: A Systems Approach, National Fire
84
Academy, Emmitsburg, MD, (NFA-SM-FRAS), p. 4-6.
17. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation, American Red Cross, Washington,
D.C., 1974.
18. The Effect of Emergency Medical Systems on Pre -Hospital
Cardiovascular Care, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute,
Bethesda, MD, April, 1981, p. 4-6.
19. Program for Establishment of the Relative Efiectiveness
of Alternative Personnel Complements, Mission Research
Corporation, June, 1976.
20. Report on the Survey of Fire Suppression Crew Size Practices,
Centaur Associates, Inc., Washington, D.C., June 1982.
21. "Fire Suppression Crew Size," Cnristopher Niemczewski,
The International Fire Chief, January 1984, p. 12.
22. Fire Suppression Rating Schedule, Insurances Services Office New
York, 1980.
23. Fire Attack II, Kimball, Warren, National wire Protection
Association, Boston, 1968.
24. Urban Guide for Fire Prevention and Control Master Planning,
National Fire Preventon and Control Administration, 1977.
25. Evaluation of the impact of Response Time and Company Staffing on
First Alarm Capability -- A Decision Making Process, A Research
Prc:ect for the National Fire Academy Executive Development I11
Program, March 12-23, 1984, pp. 2-3.
26. "A Systems Approach to Staffing and Manning," Coleman, Ronny,
Fire Chief, August 1985, p. 79.
27. Final report to the Arlington County Board, Ad Hoc Committee on
Arlington's Fire Services, December 1983, p. IV -9.
28. Operation San Francisco Technical Report, International
Association of Fire Chiefs, Washington, D.C., -1983.
29. The Effect of Emergency Medical Systems on Pre -Hospital
Cardiovascular Care -- An Evaluation of Studies and An Inventory
of Data Bases, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute,
Washington, D.C., April 1981, p. 22.
30. Methodologies for the Evaluation and Improvement of Emergency
Medical Services Systems, Andrews, R.B., L.E. Davis, J.R.
Bettman, et. al., U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington,
D.C., July 1975.
85
31. Feasibility Assessment of a Computer Aided Dispatch System for
the Police and Fire/Rescue Departments, Michaud, Cooley, Erickson
and Associates, Inc., August 1984, p. 10.
32. Op. Cit., (12), p. 74.
33. "Reduced Staffing: At What Cost?", Gerard, John, and A. Terry
Jacobsen, Fire Service Today, September 1981, p. 15.
34. Op. Cit., (30) .
35. Cardiopulmonary Resucitation, American Red Cross,
Washington, D.C., 1974.
36. Fire Protection and Emergency Medical Service Delivery
System, Los Angeles County Fire Department, April 1980.
37. Emergency Care and Transportation of Sick and Injured,
American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons, Chicago, 1981.
38. Fire Protection Handbook (14th edition), National Fire
Protection Association, Boston, 1976, p. 6-45.
39. Op. Cit., (16), p. 4-6.
40. Op. cit., (33), p. 19.
41. Home Fire Project: 1972-1982, Harvard University,
Cambridge (NBS Report #NBS-GCR-82-416), November 1982.
42. Op. Cit., (28)
43. Assessment of the Potential Impact of Fire Protection
Systems on Actual Fire Incidents, NFPCA, October 1978, p. 2.
44. Fire Management Review, Hickey, Harry, International City
Management Association, Washington, D.C., Winter, 1979.
45. Automatic Sprinkler PerfoLnlance and Reliability in United States
Department _ Energy Facilities, 1952-80.
46. Annual U.S. Navy Fire Report
47. Measurements of Comparative Effectiveness, Company Fire Fighting
Operations, Los Angeles City Fire Department, December 1980, p.
10.
48. Op. Cit., (27) (Appendix)
49. Op. Cit., (31), P.
6.
50. "A Rapid Response System for Out -of -Hospital Cardiac
86
Emergencies," Cobb, Leonard A., et al, Medical Clinics of North
America, March 1976, p. 283.
51. Ibid., p. 287.
52. "Laymen May Outscore Physicians in Cardiopulmonary
Resuscitation," Journal American Medical Association Medical
News, January 30, 1978, p. 391.
53. "Medic II"/Citizen Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), Seattle,
WA, January 1978.
54. Municipal Fire Service Workbook, Research Triangle Institute, May
1977.
55. Op. Cit., (29) , p. 22.
56. "A Difficult Question to Answer," The International Fire Chief,
Brunacini, Alan, January 1983, pp. 17-18.
57. Op. Cit., (12), p. 85.
58. Standard Schedule for Grading Cities and Towns of the United
States With Reference to Their Fire Defenses and Physical
Condition, American Insurance Association, New York, NY 1956
(with 1963 and 1964 Amendments).
59. Los Angeles County Fire Department Management Audit, February
1985, p. IF -2.
60. Op. Cit., (20) , P.
61. Op. Cit., (20) , P.
62. Cp. Cit., (19) , p. 1
18
1
63. Municipal Fire Administration, ICMA, Washington, D.C. 1967.
64. Training Standard on Initial Fire Attack, NFPA #97, National Fire
Protection Association, Boston, 1966.
65. Firefighting Principles and Practices, Clark, W.F., Dun -
Donnelly, New York, 1979.
66. Manpower Analysis, Dallas, Texas Fire Department, 1969.
67. Dallas Fire Department Staffing Study, McManis Associates, Inc.,
Washington, D.C., June, 1984.
68. Service Levels in Fire Suppression Operations - The Seattle
Experience - 1976, Lotz, David T., Seattle Fire Department.
87
69. Information provided by the Palm Beach County (FL) Fire
Department.
70. Op. Cit., (25), P. 8.
71. "Fire Fighters", Wirts, Ralph Job Safety and Health Magazine,
U.S. Department of Labor, OSHA, June, 1978.
72. Minimum Manning Based on the Required Fire Flow, Dirienzo,
Charles, et. al., A Research Project for the National Fire
Academy Executive Development I11 Program, November 30 -
December 11, 1981, p. 7.
73. Op. Cit., (16), p.p. 4-14
74. Op. Cit., (20), P. i.
75. Ibid., p.
76. Incident Command Systems, Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma
State University, Stillwater, OK, 1983, p. 11.
77. Op. Cit., (63), p. 34.
78. Management in the Fire Service, National Fire Protection
Association, Boston, MA, 1977, p. 258.
79. Emergency Vehicle Repair Service, Citrus Heights, CA.
80. Op. Cit., (78) , p. 290.
81. Op. Cit., (24), p. VII -9.
82. Op. Cit., (24), p. VII -12.
83. Op. Cit., (24) , p. IV -5.
84. Op. Cit., (63) , p. 103.
85. Op. Cit., (78), p. 279.
86. Op. Cit., (72), p. 6.
87. Procedures for Needed Fire Flow, Insurance Services Office, New
York, NY, 1980.
88. Ibid., p. 301.
89. Op. Cit., (72), P. 7-
90. Op. Cit., (12), p. 86.
88
91. Op. Cit., (24), p. V-3.
92. Fire Attack I, Kimball, Warren, National Fire Protection
Association, Boston, MA, 1966, p. 55.
93. Op. Cit., (20) , p.
94. Op. Cit., (26), P.
74.
95. Emergency Medical Services, Dallas Fire Department, 1978.
96. Ibid., p. 15.
98. Op. Cit., (25) p. 5.
99. Evaluation of Paramedic Services for Cardiac Arrest, Bergner,
Lawrence, et al, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Washington, D.C., 1981, p. 33.
100. Ibid., p. 24.
101. Ibid., p. 2.
102 Ibid., p. 27.
103 Ibid., p.14.
114 Developing Emergency Medical Services, Commission on Emergency
Medical Services, American medical Association, Chicago, IL,
1976, p. 12.
105. Earle, Robert. 1958. Personel implications of police -fire
integration. Pub. Personnel Rev. 19(3):192-196.
106. Frankel, Laurie S. 1977. Police/fire consolidation in
municipalities 10,000 and over. Urban Data Srv. Rep. 9(9) .
107. Jaynes, Charles S. 1955. A frontier of municipal safety. Chicago,
IL, Public Administration Service.
108. Lynch, Ronald G., and Lord, Vivian, 1979. Public safety
progtrams: Consolidating police and fire services. Pop. Gov.
45(1):1-8, 33.
109. More, Jr., Harry W. 1970. The new era of public safety.
Springfield, IL; Charles C. Thomas.
110. Neale, John. 1956. Integrated police -fire services...Viewpoint of
the fire underwriters. Minn. Municipalities 41(9):212-213, 218.
111. Thurow, Robert. 1979. When peace officers and firemen merge, it's
seldom peaceful. Wall Street J. September 4:1.
89
112. Rubin, Richard S. 1984. Consolidaton of the Police and Fire
Services. J. Pol Sci. and Admin. 12(2):221.
113. Slahor, Stephenie. 1992. Cross Training. 911 Magazine. Sept./Oct.
26.
114. Coe, Charles and Rosch, Joel. 1987. Benefits and Barriers to
Police -Fire Consolidation: A Case Study. J. Pol. Sci. Admin.
15(3):54.
115. Rule, Charles H. 1989. Public Safety --Will It Work? Fire Chief,
December. p 29.
116. Bates, Robert B. 1988. Can a public safety department work for
you? Fire Chief, July. p. 69.
117. Burkell, Charles J. 1986. Public safety director. Fire Chief,
March, p. 48.
118. Saly, Alan, 1984. PSO: Jack of All Trades? Firehouse, December,
p. 58.
119. Saly, Alan, PSOs-A Dying Breed? Firehouse, August, p. 53.
120. Matarese, L. A. and Chelst, K. R. 1991. Forecasting The Outcome
of Police/Fire Consolidations. ICMA MIS Report, 23(4) April
121. Krall, Ed. 1989. Will the combination of police and fire
departments work for the City of Winona? Exec. Fire Off. Prog.
NFA.
122. Rosenbauer, Donald E. 1982. Integrated police and fire services
in the village of Brown Deer and other Wisconsin communities.
Dept. of Publ. Safety, Brown Deer, WI.
123. Lawence, Cortez. 1990. Alternative public safety service delivery
- emphasizing fire protection services. Exec. Fire Off. Prog.
NFA.
124. Edwards, Brooke. 1989. Flexible deploymet of emergency response
vehicles as an alternative to traditional pbulic safety services.
Exec. Fire Off. Prog. NFA.
125. Jones, Olen M. 1990. Fire and police - developing interagency
cooperation. Exec. Fire Off. Prog. NFA.
126. Byrnes, Andrew J. 1990. Department consolidation and the incident
command system. Orem Department of Public Safety, Orem, UT.
127. Hughes, Patirck K. 1990. Public safety - why it works and why it
doesn't. Exec. Fire Off. Prog. NFA.
90
128. Personal Communication, Dr. Alma Tappolini
129. Metro -Dade Fire Rescue Fact Sheet for Key Biscayne, 3/30/92.
APPENDIX E
DATA REQUEST FROM METRO-DADE FIRE DEPARTMENT
92
GDS COMMUNICATIONS
2380 RIVERDALE DRIVE NORTH
MIRAMAR, FLORIDA 33025
Douglas R. Stutz, PhD
Geraldine K. Stutz, RN
27 December 1992
Diane Wright
Asst. Dir. for Administration
Metro -Dade Fire Department
Dear Ms. Wright:
Telephones
OFFICE: (305) 431-2566
1-800-982-1287
FAX: (305) 431-5445
I am currently assisting the Village of Key Biscayne to
establish the method of fire rescue service to serve the
community. I realize that Metro -Dade currently does this and
have discussed it at length with Chief Paulison. As a result, I
requested information from him beyond that which you have already
provided during the last year. The data given to me by the
Village did not extend beyond 1990. In order to properly support
any suggestion, I need more current data as well as some
additional data points. Your Chief asked me to get in touch with
you to obtain the necessary information. Therefore, I would like
to request the following information be forwarded to me for
review.
Number of calls, by category, i.e. fire, rescue,
miscellaneous, etc. for 1991 and to the current date in
1992.
2. Number of actual fire calls requiring suppression service
within the Village confines during 1991 and 1992. Extended
data should include:
a. Number of personnel on each fire.
b. Total time spent on the call.
c. Additional units responding and response time for each.
d. Category of the structure, i.e. single family, high-rise,
etc.
e. Loss for each fire.
f. Whether any fill units were utilized during the fire.
3. Number of responses from Station 15 to areas other than
either Virginia Key or Key Biscayne with the total times out
of the first response area.
4. Number of EMS responses for 1991 and 1992 to include:
a. Number of ALS vs. BLS calls.
b. Calls by type, i.e. heart attack, trouble breathing, auto
accident, etc.
c. Number of actual transports by code.
d. Total time on transport and scene for each.
e. Number of rescue calls out of the primary response area
for Station 15. Total time out of the area.
f. If fees were charged, the total collected.
5. Number of mutual aid calls requiring response by Station 15.
6. Number of mutual aid calls into Station 15's response area.
7. Average number of personnel on duty for each shift during
the years.
8. Number of inspections performed by Station 15 personnel each
year.
9. Number of public fire education events conducted by Station
15 personnel.
10. Number of times the volunteers were dispatched during 1991
and 1992 with the following data:
a. Number of personnel responding.
b. Total time involved.
c. Response time for the unit.
d. Types of calls dispatched on and what service was
performed on each.
I would like to thank you in advance for your assistance. I
will provide you with the data summary that I develop with the
above information and that which has been provided by the
Village. I greatly appreciate your help. If you have any
questions, please contact me at the above numbers or call me at
2
the following number:
Chief Douglas R. Stutz, PhD
Miramar Fire Rescue Department
435-4406
Sincerely,
Doug . Stutz, PhD
3
T R A N S M I T T A L
To:
From
Date:
Pages:
Re:
Aosdel
/.).-
‘A,f� �O(rBry
***•********•**..4 *:**** *:*********************************************•4
*
TRANSACTION REPORT
*
*
FOR: GDS COMMUNICATIONS 305 431 5445
SEND
*
RECEIVER PAGES NOTE
5968891 4 OK
*
*+•.+.***************:h:**********************************************:+
GDS Communications
2380 Riverdale Drive
North
Miramar, Florida
33025
Tel: (305) 431-2566
Fax: (305) 431-5445
1-800-982-1287