HomeMy Public PortalAbout19961120 - Agendas Packet - Board of Directors (BOD) - 96-24 REVISED
Meeting 96-24
SPECIAL MEETING
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
AGENDA*
6:30 P.M. 330 Distel Circle
Wednesday Los Altos, California
November 20, 1996
(6:30) ROLL CALL
CLOSED SESSION
The Closed Session will begin at 6:30 P.M. At 7:30 P.M., the Board will adjourn
the Closed Session to the conclusion of the meeting if necessary.
1. Public E=o= Performance Evaluation - Government Code Section 54957
Title: General Manager
2. Conference With —Real RmpWy Negotiato - Government Code Section
54956.8
A. Real PLQWr1,y: Santa Cruz County Assessor's Parcel Numbers: 98-
141-10 and 98-141-11
Negotiating Parties: Pelican Timber Co., Charles J. Keenan III
Under Negotiations: Instructions to negotiator will concern price and
terms of payment.
(7:30) ORAL COMMUNICATIONS -- Public
SPECIAL ORDER OF THE DAY
Adoption of Resolution Honoring Tony Look
ADOPTION OF AGENDA
ADOPTION OF CONSENT CALENDAR -- N. Hanko
APPROVAL OF MINUTES
October 30, 1996 (Consent Item)
WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS (Consent Item)
BOARD BUSINESS
(7:45) 1. Continued Review of Proposed Mission Statement and Revisions to Raak
Policies of Midpgninsula Regional Qpen Spac
e District as Part of Development
of Regional Q= Space PI -- R. Anderson
Meeting 96-24 Page 2
(8:15) INFORMATIONAL REPORTS -- Directors and Staff
*** REVISED CLAIMS (Consent Item)
CLOSED SESSION - (Continued, if necessary)
ADJOURNMENT
*NOTE.- limes are estimated and items may appear earlier or later than listed. Agenda is
subject to change of order.
i
I
** TO ADDRESS THE BOARD: The Chair will invite public comment on agenda items at the time
each item is considered by the Board of Directors. You may address the Board concerning other
matters during oral communications. Each speaker will ordinarily be limited to 3 minutes.
Alternately, you may comment to the Board by a written communication, which the Board
appreciates.
***All items on the consent calendar shall be anFroved without discussion by one motion. Board
members, the General Managfr and members of the public may request that an item be removed
from the Gonsent Calendar during consideration of the Consent Calendar.
NOTICE OF PUBLIC MEETINGS
The Board's Regular Meeting of Wednesday November 27, 1996 has been
canceled.
Regional . c
MIDPENINSULA REGIONAL OPEN SPACE DISTRICT
Meeting 96-24
SPECIAL MEETING
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
AGENDA* '
6:30 P.M. 330 Distel Circle
Wednesday Los Altos, California
November 20, 1996
(6:30) ROLL CALL
CLOSED SESSION
The Closed. Session will begin at 6:30 P.M. At 7:30 P.M., the Board will adjourn
the Closed Session to the conclusion of the meeting if necessary.
1. Conference With Real Proper y Ne og tutor - Government Code Section
54956.8
A. Real, Property: Santa Cruz County Assessor's Parcel Numbers: 98-
141-10 and 98-141-11
Negotiating Parties: Pelican Timber Co., Charles J. Keenan III
Under Negotiations: Instructions to negotiator will concern price and
terms of payment.
2. Public Employee Performance Evaluation - Government Code Section 54957
Title: General Manager
** ORAL COMMUNICATIONS -- Public
ADOPTION OF AGENDA
*** ADOPTION OF CONSENT CALENDAR -- N. Hanko
*** APPROVAL OF MINUTES
October 30, 1996 (Consent Item)
*** WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS (Consent Item)
BOARD BUSINESS
7:45 1. Continued Review of Proposed Mission Statement and Revisions to Basic
Policies of Midpoinsula Regional Onen Space District as Part of Development
of the Regional Open Space Plan -- R. Anderson
(8:15) INFORMATIONAL REPORTS -- Directors and Staff
*** REVISED CLAIMS (Consent Item)
330 Distel Circle . Los Altos,CA 94022-1404 . Phone:415-691-1200 & FAX:415-691-0485 * E-mail: mrosd@netcom.com
Board of Directors:Bete Siemens,Mary C.Davey,Teena Henshaw,David T.Smernoff,Nonette Hanko,Betsy Crowder,Wim de Wit
General Manager:L.Craig Britton
Meeting 96-24 Page 2
CLOSED SESSION - (Continued, if necessary)
ADJOURNMENT
*NOTE: Times are estimated and items may appear earlier or later than listed. Agenda is
subject to change of order.
** TO ADDRESS THE BOARD: The Chair will invite public comment on agenda items at the time
each item is considered by the Board of Directors. You may address the Board concerning other
matters during oral communications. Each speaker will ordinarily be limited to 3 minutes.
Alternately, you may comment to the Board by a written communication, which the Board
appreciates.
***All items on the consent calendar shall be annroved without discussion by one motion. Board
members, the General Manager, and members of the public may request that an item be removed
from the Consent Calendar during consideration of the Consent Calendar
NOTICE OF FUBLIC MEETINGS
The Board's Regular Meeting of Wednesday November 27, 1996 has been
canceled.
Regionai Open S. ce
MIDPENINSULA REGIONAL OPEN SPACE DISTRICT
SPECIAL MEETING
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
October 30, 1996
MINUTES
I. ROLL CALL
President Nonette Hanko called the Special Meeting to order at 7:04 P.M.
Members Present: Pete Siemens, Mary Davey, Teena Henshaw, David Smernoff,
Nonette Hanko, Betsy Crowder, and Wim de Wit.
Personnel Present: Craig Britton, John Escobar, Sue Schectman, Malcolm Smith,
Randy Anderson, Jean Fiddes, Mary de Beauvieres, Julie McCullough, Jodi Isaacs,
Lisa Zadek, and Patrick Congdon.
H. BOARD BUSINESS - PUBLIC WORKSHOP FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A
REGIONAL OPEN SPACE PLAN
N. Hanko asked if any members of the public wished to address the Board on any
item not related to the Regional Open Space Plan. No one addressed the Board.
Approximately 25 members of the public were in attendance at the workshop.
C. Britton stated that the purpose of the workshop meeting was to review the draft
revised Basic Policies prepared by staff in response to the ideas generated at the initial
January 1996 public workshop on the Regional Open Space Plan and staff workshops
on the material. He reviewed the objectives and benefits of the Regional Open Space
Plan project.
R. Anderson, who facilitated the workshop, reviewed the end products expected from
the Regional Open Space Plan, the process to be followed, and the steps and
timeframe for completing the project.
It was noted that the Board had received written input from Linda V. Elkind, 14
Hawk View, Portola Valley, on the proposed wording of the mission statement and
the Basic Policies and from Bob Kain, President, ROMP, on the Regional Open Space
Plan and the needs of mountain cyclists.
Introduction .
Discussion focused on whether the full text of the Stegner quote or the edited version
printed in the introduction should be used. The Board agreed that N. Hanko should
check with Mary Stegner to determine what Mrs. Stegner thinks about the quote being
330 Distel Circle . Los Altos, CA 94022-1404 . Phone:415-691-1200 * FAX:415-691-0485 & E-mail: mrosd@netcom.com
Board of Directors:Pete Siemens,Mary C.Davey,Teena Henshaw, David T.Smernoff,Nonette Hanko,Betsy Crowder,Wim de Wit
General Manager:L.Craig Britton
Meeting 96-22 Page 2
edited and if she might want to recommend another quote. Staff is also to look for
alternate quotes that could be used in the introduction.
The first bullet under open space was amended by Board consensus to read "Is land
area that is allowed to remain in or return to its natural state. Open space lands may
include compatible agriculture uses".
The word "improves" was changed to "enhances" in the fourth bullet by Board
consensus after discussion of whether the statement needed to be included in the
Introduction.
Mission Statement
There was Board consensus on version 2 of the Mission Statement with no wording
changes.
Objective 1 - Open Space Land Preservation
The wording of the goal of "preserving a regional greenbelt of open space lands,
linking District lands with federal, state, county, and city parklands and watershed
lands" to be reworded by staff to better reflect goal of linking the District's greenbelt
to other jurisdictions' lands.
The combination of existing and proposed wording for District Purpose was
discussed to provide a clearer statement. The word "use-intensive" to be changed to
"high intensity". Discussion focused on the whether the intent of the statement was to
state what the District is, as opposed to stating what the District is not. There was
Board consensus to switch the first two sentences, to retain the second sentence of the
initial text, and to use the present tense rather than the future tense throughout the
document.
The Board agreed with a suggestion that page numbers for documents referred to not
be included in the text since pages numbers could change when policies are revised.
C. Britton suggested that footnotes be used; only the footnote page would need to be
revised when changes were necessary. B. Crowder requested that there be a
compilation of all District policies at the end of the document.
Oren Space Acquisition
In section c, the Board agreed that the word "will" should be changed to "may" in the
fourth, sixth, and eighth lines as decisions each Board will need to make are being
referenced.
In section d, the Board agreed that the second sentence regarding eminent domain
should be changed to read "Eminent domain will ordinarily be used within the
District's boundaries and sphere of influence and only in those instances where all
reasonable attempts at voluntary negotiations have fair, the property in question is
Meeting 96-22 Page 3
necessary to the District's open space program, and where there are no feasible
alternate acquisitions that would achieve the District's objectives in a timely manner."
Master Plan, Regional ORgn Space Plan
There was Board consensus to change to word "publish" to "produce" in the first
sentence and to substitute the words "desirability of" for "priorities for" in the second
sentence. D. Smemoff stated that a clearer definition of the Regional Open Space
Plan was needed in the text, and the Board concurred.
%jeeflyt 2 - Inter-Agency Relationship
Participation
Based on suggestions from Legal Counsel related to the District's role as a public
agency, there was Board consensus to rephrase the Participation statement to read
"The District will participate in the public process of formulation of land use plans of
other agencies that affect the District's mission" with staff to work on eliminating
some of the "ofs".
Advocacy
R. Anderson showed a revised paragraph for the Advocacy section proposed by
District Legal Counsel. The Board concurred with the proposed wording with the
following changes: the first sentence was changed to read "to better plan, acquire,
and operate..." and "will" was changed to "may" in the first and second sentences.
Objective 3 Open Space Management
The Board agreed to change the objective statement to read "The District will follow
management policies the ensure proper care of the land, that provide public access
appropriate to the nature of the land, and that are consistent with ecological values
and public safety."
Resource Management
The word "natural" was added before the word diversity.
Public Access and Constraints
Discussion focused on how to clarify the statement so that it is clear that open space
acquisition is the District's highest priority and that, because of the District's fixed
amount of funding, the development of facilities would divert funding for acquisition.
Staff was directed to redraft this Public Access and Constraints section for the Board's
review on November 20.
Meeting 96-22 Page 4
Discussion also focused on why the statement "Areas found to be vital wildlife or
plant habitats will be designated as refuge areas, and in these areas access will be
severely restricted" had not been included in the revised text. The Board concurred
that this wording should be included.
The Board concurred that the Resource Management Policies should be referenced
after the second paragraph of Public Access and Constraints.
Recreational Use and Imgravements
The Board agreed with the public comment that nature study should be the first item
listed under low intensity recreational uses and that the words "but not limited to"
should be included in the statement since not all possible uses were listed. The words
"or designation of areas exclusively for one use" should be deleted since this
statement would preclude hiker-only trails.
At Legal Counsel's recommendation, "exposure to liability" was added to the factors
that "may", rather than "will", be considered in deciding whether to permit certain
facilities and activities on District lands.
It was recommended that the Board's budget guidelines be referenced at the end of
the third paragraph of section d.
The word "community" to be added before organizations in the first sentence of the
fourth paragraph.
Cultural Resources
The Board agreed that the word "will" should be changed to "may" in the first
sentence.
Agricultural and Enterprise Use
Since "enterprise" was an internal District-used word and not commonly known to
everyone, it was agreed to use "limited revenue producing" instead. The Board
agreed that timber harvesting should be deleted from the list of agricultural uses of
District land and that the word "will" should be changed to "may" in the last sentence
of the section.
Objective 4 Public Involvement
Public Information and Meeting Procedures
There was Board consensus to change the second sentence in the first paragraph to
read "This information shall be disseminated as widely as possible throughout the
District" and to change "its constituency" to "the public" at the end of the second
paragraph.
Meeting 96-22 Page 5
Partici ao tion
The Board agreed to add "ecological and" before the words "environmental
education" in the last sentence of section d.
The Board discussed making the recruitment and training of volunteers more
prominent in the document as discussed at the January 1996 workshop, and M. Davey
stated that there should be a separate section on volunteerism.
Objective 5 Administration
The Board agreed to add the words "and objectives" after the word "goals" in the
Administration objective statement.
It was noted that the Administration section did not include any information on the
Board of Directors. The Board agreed that a section should be added on the Board's
role.
S. Schectman stated that the final document should include a disclaimer similar to that
in other documents stating that failure to adhere to a specific statement or policy shall
not affect the validity of any action taken.
B. Crowder reiterated that she would like to see a central document where one could
find all of the District's policies.
The Board scheduled a follow-up Special Meeting to continue its review of the
mission statement and revision of the Basic Policies on Wednesday, November 20,
beginning at 7:30 P.M.
III. ADJOURNMENT
The meeting was adjourned at 9:40 P.M.
Jean H. Fiddes
District Clerk
Prc ed to Board of Directors
at 1 vmber 20, 1996 Special
Meeting under Oral Communications
NOV.19,1996
MIDPENINSULA REGIONAL OPEN SPACE BOARD
330 DISTAL CT.
LOS ALTOS, CA
DEAR BOARD NMABERS;
IT HAS RECENTLY BEEN BROUGHT TO MY ATTENTION THAT YOU HAVE
OKAYED DOGS BEING TAKEN ON HAMM'S GULCH TRAIL. THAT TRAIL
AND THE ONES THAT IMMEDIATELY BRANCH FROM IT CROSS DIRECTLY
OVER THE SPRINGS THAT ARE THE WATER SUPPLY FOR FIVE HOMES
JUST BELOW. SOME OF THE SPRINGS ARE PARTIALLY OPEN IN THAT
AREA AND OUR CATCH BASINS ARE BELOW THE TRAILS. THIS WATER
HAS BEEN USED FOR HOMES FOR OVER SEVENTY YEARS.
YOU PROBABLY DID NOT REALIZE THAT DOGS CARRY MANY COM-
MUNICABLE DISEASES TO MAN IN THEIR URINE AND THEIR FECES.
THEY ARE:
IN THE URINE: BRUCELLA CANIS CAUSING RECURRENT CHILLS
AND FEVER AND IN SOME RARE CASES MENINGITIS.
LEPTOSPIROSIS: CAUSING NEUROLOGICAL
SYMPYOMS.
IN THE FECES: PARASITES:
TOXACARA CANIS,(ESPECIALLY HARMFUL TO
CHILDREN,WHERE THE LARVA WILL MIGRATE INTO
THE EYEBALL)
GIARDIA: CAUSES SEVERE DIARRHEA IN
UNDIAGNOSED CASES
ECHINOCOCCUS: DIARRHEA
HOOKWORM(A NEW FORM JUST DISCOVERED)
CLYPTISPORIDUM: DIARRHEA
BACTERIA: YERSINIA CAUSES DIARRHEA
PASTEURE.LLA MULTOCIDA;PNEUMONIA
CAMPHYLOBACTER; DIARRHEA
SALMONELLA: SEVERE DIARRHEA,CAN CAUSE
' DEATH IN SOME CASES
NOTE: MOST,IF NOT ALL OF THESE DISEASES CAN BE WATERBORNE.
2.
NOW THESE ARE NOT FREQUENT OCCURRENCES,BUT NEITHER WAS
TUBERCULOSIS UNTIL.RECENTLY WHEN IMMIGRATION SERVICE LET
DOWN ITS GUARD.
WHY, YOU MAY ASK,DONT ALL DOG OWNERS GET THESE DISEASES.
SOME FEW DO. BUT MOST DOG OWNERS DO NOT DRINK.FROM WATER
CONTAMINATED WITH THESE PATHOGENS OR GROW THEIR VEGETABLES
IN GROUND FED BY CONTAMINATED WATER
LETS ADDRESS THE THEORY THAT ALL DOG OWNERS KEEP THEIR DOGS
ON A LEASH ON THE TRAILS. MOST OWNERS DON'T EVEN HAVE THEM
ON A LEASH ON ALPINE ROAD AND THE REST RELEASE THEIR DOGS AS
SOON AS THEY ARE ON THE HAMWS GULCH TRAIL. SO THEY HAVE
BROKEN TWO LAWS AT THE SAME TIME.
ANOTHER MYTH: ALL DOG OWNERS CARRY KITS IN WHICH TO PLACE
THEIR DOG'S DISPOSABLE WASTE AND USE THEM. JUST WALK THE
TRAILS BEHIND THE DOG OWNERS AND SEE FOR YOURSELF. I HAVE
ONLY SEEN ONE LADY IN FIVE YEARS DO JUST THAT. I WAS SO
STUNNED I WENT UP AND CONGRATULATED HER ALSO IF YOU DONT
HAVE YOUR DOGS ON A LEASH THEY ARE OUT OF YOUR SIGHT SOME OF
THE TIME. THIS IS WHEN THEY PREFER TO DO THEIR "BUSINESS).
AND THE OLD SAW THAT:"HE DID HIS BUSINESS JUST BEFORE WE LEFT
HOME." DOGS CAN HAVE MORE THAT ONE BOWEL MOVEMENT PER DAY
ESPECIALLY WHEN THEY ARE EXCITED GOING OUT ON A TRAIL. AND
THEY URINATE ALL DAY.
ALL THIS MAY SOUND THAT I DO NOT LIKE DOGS. NOTHING COULD BE
FURTHER FROM THE TRUTH. I HAVE TWO DOGS OF MY OWN BUT THEY
ARE FENCED WITHIN THREE ACRES AND I DO NOT TAKE THEM OUT ON
THE TRAIL. I KEEP THEM HEALTHY BUT WE STILL PICK.UP THEIR FECES
DAILY. AS A VETERINARIAN FOR TWENTY FIVE YEARS I DEVELOPED A
SPECIAL EMPATHY FOR DOGS ABOVE THE AVERAGE PET
OWNER AS I SAW THEM IN ALL MANNER OF HURT AND NEGLECT.
NOT KEEPING A DOG ON A LEASH IS A FROM OF NEGLECT.I CANNOT
TELL YOU THE NUMBER OF DOGS THAT I HAD TO SET BONES AND
SUTURE OR MORE OFTEN EUTHANASIA.
HOW ARE YOU GOING TO POLICE THESE DOGS AND THEIR OWNERS?
HIKERS CAN BE ON ONE TRAIL AND THEY SEE ANOTHER TRAIL,
AND NO MATTER HOW IT IS MARKED (PRIVATE, NO DOGS, NO
BIKES,EI'C)THEY WILL GO ON THAT MARKED TRAIL. I WAS NOT
AWARE THAT YOUR BUDGET INCLUDED SUCH POLICING ABILITY.
ANOTHER ARGUMENT YOU MAY HEAR FROM THESE FEW DOG OWNERS IS
THAT THERE ARE ALREADY WILD ANIMALS IN THESE MOUNTAINS AND
THEY COULD SPREAD DISEASE TO HUMANS. THERE ARE ONLY A FEW
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES FROM THE WILD ANIMALS IN THESE
MOUNTAINS: RABIES IS ONE. TICK BOURNE DISEASES ARE NOT
TRANSMITTED DIRECTLY FROM DEER TO MAN BUT FROM BUSHES TO
MAN (THEY,BY THE WAY,ALSO AFFECT DOGS). IN MY RESEARCH I DID
NOT COME ACROSS ANY WATERBORNE DISEASES CAUSED BY WILD
ANIMALS IN THIS AREA.
FINALLY THERE ARE OTHER TRAILS ON WHICH PEOPLE CAN TAKE THEIR
DOGS. DO WE REALLY NEED MORE ESPECIALLY WHEN THEY MAY CAUSE
A DANGER TO OTHERS?
ALL THE LAND OWNERS HERE HAVE RIGHTS TO THE ALL THE SPRINGS
ON THESE MOUNTAINS BY DEED.
SIN ,
GEORGE UDY DVM
5070 ALPINE RD.
PORTOLA VALLEY, CA 94028
TEL: 415-851-8318
FAX: 415-851-8379
NOV-20-1995 10: 10 ,0 E14VIRONMENTAL HEALTH
415 353 ?882 F.02
0
-:7 .
HEALTH SERVICES AGE
v P AGENCY
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERVICES DIVISION
November 20, 1996
Midpeninsula Regional Open Space
330 Distal Court
Los Altos, CA
To Whom It May Concern:
An issue has been brought to our attention concerning the protection
of 5 privately owned water supplies whose sources are located on
Mid-Peninsula Open Space land. We have been informed by these
concerned homeowners of a recent approval to allow dogs on Hamm's
Gulch Trail. These people are concerned because a number of the
trails in the area cross over their catch basins. They believe that the
risk of contamination by biological agent Increases with the
allowance of dogs on the trails.
A few of these homes have been using these springs as their sole
source of water for over 70 years. Though we have not inspected
these systems, the age of these homes leads us to believe that by
natural,degradation and/or disrepair, some springs may be at more
risk than others.
Does Mid-Peninsula Open Space know where these springs are in
relation to common trails and human activity? What are the
conditions of these springs/catch basins? Are these springs ca turin true groundwater, or are they a compilation of seepages that p g
gravitate towards catch basins? If these sources are by definition,
groundwater under the influence of surface runoff, then an even
wider swath of the watershed needs protection.
A '
SAN MATEO COUN'n BOARD OP SUPERVISORS
RUSEN BARRALES•MARY GRIFFIN-TOM HUENING•TED LEMPERT•MICHAEL D.NEVIN
HIIALTH S>:RGAR T ENCYTAYL DIRECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERVICES DIVISION DIRECTOR
MARGARF.T TAYI,OR RRIAN 7.AMORA,Mp",REHS
590 HAMILTON STREET,REDWOOD CITY,CALIFORNIA 94063
PHONE(4I4) 1A1I_4'4n4•rnn fAl[% C,*
NOU-20-1996 10: 19 -MCO ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 415 363 ?882 P-03
It is the recommendation of this division, that a determination be
made into what impacts, if any, the allowance of dogs on Hamm s
Gulch Traii(s) will have on your neighbor's drinking water supplies.
If you have any questions concerning this letter, please call me at
(415) 363-4327.
Thank
you for your consideration.
Sincerely,
Kenneth W. Robinson, REHS, MPH
Small Water Systems Program
Nov-20-96 01 : 54P
P_01
1�1i Y.
Mid „' Open Space Board
330 Oistai C'our.
Los Altos, CA 94022
Dear Board Members:
I reside at 5050 Alpine Drive and am a neighbor of L Jowdy, Dr. Okama and Mr. John
Porter. Just recently I have been informed that the district has decided to allow members
of the general public to take their dogs on the Hamm's Gulch trail. As you are probably
already aware, my neighbors and I are dependent upon a spring fed water source for our
domestic water supply. I believe that the Hamm's Gulch trail is adjacent to our spring
water source.
Though I am a lover of dogs I strongly object to this new policy due to the health issues
articulated by Dr. Gowdy and Dr. Jkama. It is clear to me that the potential health risks
far outweigh any benefits that may be claimed by individuals walking their dogs.
According to recent news articles dog o-iners do have access to other trails as well as
other preseraes. Therefore, closing the _.amm's trail to dogs will not deprive dog owners
of the opportunity to utilize open space with their dogs.
Please reconsider your decision and protect the homeowners who are dependent on this
water source.
Very truly yours,
Nona Sugano
5050 Alpine Road
Portola Valley, CA 94028
TUE 13:34 FAX 408 98, 16 SOURSAC
GENCELL
jfpf 6
A OMSION OF RHONEFOULDVC MOR61?
5�40 I PATRICK r,CNRY DFaVE
SANTA CLARA,CA 95054
'HOMAS S.CKARMA,Ph.0,M.G.
-EL, 406-980-5800
FAX 408-192-1950
November 19, 1996
Mid-Peninsula Regional Open Space District
330 Distel Court
Los Altos, CA 94022
Dear Sirs,
I am writing to declare my objections to your recent decision to allow dogs on
Hamm's Gulch Trail. As a homeowner on the former Lauriston Estate in
Portola Valley, the owners of four other homes on the property and I have
riparian rights to the natural water springs that permeate the ridge. This water
has been the water supply to these homes for over half a century.
I am not willing to allow this water to become contaminated with the human
pathogens currently found in the feces and urine of domestic dogs. Your
decision, taken without consulting any of us, is a direct threat to the safety of my
family and the integrity of my landowner rights. I urge that you immediately
reverse this decision to avoid the necessity of other means to call attention to
your unhealthy decision.
Sincerely,
Thomas B. Okarma, Ph.D., M.D.
TBO[Jt
SENT BY:SERVICE CTR COORD, 3.36MI REDWOOD f "S- 2/ 2
John Porter
5030 Alpine Road
Portola Valley, CA 94028
November 20, 1996
Mid-Peninsula Regional Open,Space District
330 Distel Court
Los Altos, CA 94022
To Whom it May Concern:
As owner of one of the five homes located within the Lauriston Estate on
Alpine Road in Portola Vally, I write this letter to vehemently object to your
proposal to allow dogs on Hamm's Gulch Trail, which crosses directly above
our properties. These homes have relied on the natural water springs located
on the Hamm's Gulch Trail for their water supply for many years.
To allow dogs in this area would directly threaten our water supply. The
health of all of us who live there would be clearly endangered by the bacteria
and disease carried by dog feces and urine, including parasites, giardia,
salmonella, and numerous other maladies.
For this reason, I implore you to reconsider and reverse this proposal.
Sincerely,
John Porter
November 20, 1996
To Midpeninsula Open Space District:
As a rule I avoid writing letters to a public forum. However, the case regarding
Domestic Dogs and Access to Hams Gulch Trail and parts of Windy Hill is far too
important not to address.
These coastal hills, are to my life s experience, truly unique and special. I have
been on this eastern Slope for the last 15 years, working and living. Through this
period of time I have come to recognize that the natural world and the suburban
world have hit a balance in this micro-environment.
We have deer, the deer are kept in check by the bobcats, coyotes, and cougars. We
have rodents of all kinds, as well as rabbits, and such other ground creatures, and
they are kept in check by birds, bobcats and coyotes, et cetera. Those are just some
examples of what is working here, despite human suburban incursion.
Why this is working is up for conjecture. But I believe the limited number of
domestic animals such as dogs, has been a mitigating factor, considering the human
influence of roads and trails.
If humans could be relied on to control their domestic charges and not let them run
wild, even then their influence would still possibly be felt in this environment. Just
their scat and markings in any quantity near trails would frighten some animals
and attract (as to prey) others. And. hat does not address an, a dit aal nntt��+�••„
of the water shed. Something none of us wants to see happen.._.
My largest concern is, what will happen the first time a dog is attacked while
following the unfamiliar scent of an unknown predator? Or, even the trail of a
deer. Deer have been known to attack dogs when surprised or cornered. Will the
traps and hunters then arrive to avenge and to eliminate the hapless predator to
make it same for domestic creatures?
And what of the first coyote attack on a dog? W e now rabies exist in the local
coyote population. Will we then trap and kill them off? Who, will help eat the
rodents? Who, will replace them in the food chain of the bobcats and cougars?
I love and respect domestic dogs of all kinds. Most of my adult life has been shared
with dogs. I would, however, never bring my dogs to the wilderness to run for
their own protection and protection of the natural wild environment.
I must conclude, by asking all of you to love and respect both your canine friends
as well as those that nature has put before you.
With respect,
David Trupiano
T't '� t T.`_i1�.3 1S:r`,t:;�d;'S3�,� 14-3 0:S0 96: @C Pcfj
j
Jack Payne died unexpectedly on March 19, 1988 after this
_1 manuscript was completed but before publication. We have T h L
-lost a valued colleague and friend.
JCB
SRP
Zoonoses
Infections ;r
transmitted from animals to man
John C.Bell BVSc MRCVS DVSM ?�;!
Senior Veterinary Officer, I'
Veterinary Investigation Section,
Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries&Food,
Tolwort h I1:'
°-` SlephenR.Palmer MAMBBChirFFCM
Consultant Epidemiologist, '
PHLS Communicable Disease I 'I
Surveillance Centre,
- PHLS Regional Epidemiologist for Wales,
Cardiff Public Health Laboratory,
University Hospital of Wales,Cardiff
1I:"
Aam. Jack M.Payne PhD BSc MRCVS FiBiol I "'
FRSA
P Late Visiting Professor,
Department of Agriculture,
_ University of Reading, p
€z - (Formerly Director the ASRC Institute for
Research on Animal Disease,Compton)
Edward Arnold
DISTRIBU7 ED BY
LUNIi SHERIDAN HOUSE INC. `N�
145 PALISADE STREET :�':'
-- I DOBBS FERRY,NY 10522 1211j
r
N4 Arnencan rr)panosomousis Ancylosro as+s 5
infection, breast milk and laboratory accidents are Prognosis �.
T,
possible. Numans. re fatality rate may appro h 8 per cent in
infected childr t '
L� Incub on perfod
Nunra+rs. -14 days after bite, 30-40 days a er blood Animals. In do s, latent infecti may last for years,
transfusion. though myocarditi may shorten t e life-span.
Animals. 5-4 days. Preventlon I � - T .
Humans. Destroy th vecto by insecticides or by altering J" x ,
Clinical feature its habitat. Use insect s o prevent bites. Screen blood �. �:�s.•,;:
Humans. Acute f iness us/oc in children with a donors for infection or eat blood with gentian violetfuruncle at thesitf infecinclude fever, mal- before use. Apply strict 1 b ratory safety precautions.aise,enlarged lymph odes, leen. If the primary _site of infection is t1 eye ilateral oedema of Animals. Control v -tors usi insecticides.NORM eyelids and conjuncti kis ( sign). Rarely myo , j.freatmentcarditis and meningoen pl Chronic symptoms _
i t b require expert f b se u id Trypa oces may e o
in adults result from arr imias and dilation of the heart, Humans.
oesophagus and colon. assessment. ;
Animals. Acute an inap arent infection occur in wild Animals. N e.
animals and chronic isease is een in dogs.The acute form,
Vwhich includes fev r, enlarge liver and lymph nodes and Legisletlo
heart irregulariti s, lasts l0- days before becoming Humans_ otifiable in some endemic areas.
chronic without further clinical signs, though sometimes
Animals. None.
s
myocarditis oc rs. �• P i ,,�
oaf
Pathology AncyioStomiasis Vol '
( g ) P point of I,e _:J•: Humans. uruncles cha oma a ear at the
entry of t infection. Enlarged liver and spleen, myocar- (Llncinariasis, necatoriasis, hookworm disease, hookworm
p 'Ii dins, gro Iy dilated heart, intestines, oesophagus, ureter anaemia)
and blad er and meningoencephalitis ocur. A common worm infection of humans and domestic dogs i
and cats in various tropical and subtropical countries where
Anima Lesions in dogs resemble tho a in humans. disposal of human faeces is inadequate. The severity of j
symptoms depends on the number of worms present.
µQ Spec al Investigations The causative agents are mainly Necalor amerrcanus and
F� Hum ns and animals. In acute llness identify Ancylosroma duodenole; occasionally A. c-eylanicum and
tryp nsomes in blood microscopically, or ulture by inocu- A. caninunr(Nematoda). There is no vaccine.
n� lati n of blood into suckling mice. Serologi al tests include
flu rescent antibody, ELISA, indirect hae agglutination, Reservoir and mode of transmission
co plement fixation and latex agglutinatio tests. Adult worths, living in the small intestines of humans and
�D MENEM animals (dogs and cats), produce eggs which pass on to the
ground in faeces. The eggs hatch and go through three
�m "s
1> t i
i0 •
e A nrsaklasts I
6 Ancylosronriasis All t
4"
the third- ta> a Species differentiation requires examination of adult
larval stages. Human infection results from
worms or larvae cultured from faeces.
larvae which survive in soi s or several weeks in moist 1
iv'w
warm conditions. Animals and man become infected by
V Prognosis
I� ? contact with infected soil, the larvae penetrating through
-_-�
Humans. Symptoms depend on the weight of infecund.
skin or mucosa of the digestive tract. The parasites then
� J Repeated infections are common. Chronic anaemia and , - �• 'r
migrate through the blood capillaries to the lung, even P
=° develo mental retardation are possible. ?
tually to be coughed up and swallowed. They reach matur P r.•fi 1
ity and complete their cycle in the intestines. Animals. Severe anaemia and failure to thrive are likely in r �.�' a 'a�':1` '
'If 10
.� ,
Incubation period
the young. S �,r1'S ,� - A
Humans and animals. Variable,up to many months. ,�(,f-
Prevention A s
Humans. Pre ex osure to larvae by wearing shoes ram, Ar',)r� ,,
Clinical features
Humans. The condition is often asymptomatic. Self- and in itar methods or is o acres. r t. .
Screen faeces from persons from endemic areas, an
limiting vesicular/pustular skin eruptions may appear at tea
_ the site of larval entry. A. carrinum does not penetrate cases.
171 '
human skin beyond the epidermis. With other species
— chronic symptoms due to iron deficiency anaemia may Animals. Keep kennel floors dry, avoid putting out feed
T for dogs on ground wet with dew when larvae are active.
occur. Rarely there is tracheitis and coughing due to lung
o 4. infiltration with parasites.
Treatment M.
Animals. Factors such as the weight of infection and Humans. Mebcndazole, pyrantel, bephenivm, tetra-
nutritional state of the animal are important.Loss of blood chioroethylene, iron supplements l
together with malnutrition produce anaemia. Severe enter-
unds.
I
iris causes haemorrhagic diarrhoea and weight loss from Animals. Oral administration of bephenium compo `intestinal malabsorption. Prenatal infection of the dag
causes death of the fetal pups. Mild infections generally Legislation �.
cause no clinical signs. Humans. Not usually notifiable.
Pathology Animals. None.
Humans. The major disorder is iron deficiency anaemia
caused by the leaching of blood. Migration of larvae pro-
caused
duces mild skin inflamrna[ion at the site of larval entry,and
Her orm diseasel II
ai
>�` in the lungs. More extensive cutaneous larva migrans is �.
� i possible. Attachment of the parasites to the wall of the A common pa "tic infection rn fish. The parasites are
' intestine Ir caner tncal enteritis and haemorrhas�e- widely distributed. rsease occurs where people cat
Losinophia is prominent.i caw or lightly smok r s d saltwater fish or squid(e.g. }�
v
in Japan, lire etherlands, ndinavia and Central s,
Animals. Anaemia and emaciation occur. America). IIII`
The c Sal
agents ace Arrisokis, Phoc no and Con-
Special in�esti ations
8 traca um (Nernaloda). There is no vaccine.
r o Huntons and allldentify hookworms in faeces.
it
38 C'ampylobacteriosis Capiltariasis 39
selective media in a CO2 enriched atmosphere at a tempera. may be notifiable in some countries, including Australia,
ture of 43°C. Serology may be useful in outbreaks. Israel and New Zealand. - l{
Animals. Culture faeces, foods of animal origin and Animals. C.fetus infection is notifiable in some Central �T.,'
_ drinking water. and South American and European countries. Slaughter
policy operates in Cuba and USSR for C.fetus.
Prognosis '..
Humans. Usually self-limiting gastroenteritis. l
Capillariasis •
Animals. C.jejuni and C. soli rarely cause illness in ani
coals. Sometimes isolated from puppies with diarrhoea but (Capillariosis, intestinal capillariasis, hepatic capillariasis,
significance unknown. pulmonary capillariasis]
A roundworm intestinal infection acquired by eating raw
Prevention fish and which may cause fatal liver disease.
Humans. Pasteurize milk. Chlorinate drinking water The causative agents are Capillaria hepatica (hepa-
supplies. Thoroughly cook meat (especially poultry) and tic form), C. phitippirrensis (intestinal form) and ;
practice good kitchen hygiene. C. aerophila (respiratory form) (Nematoda). There is no .
vaccine.
Animals. Prevent introduction of C. fetus by restricting C. hepatica and C. aerophila are very rare infections with
purchases to known non-infected virgin animals and use of isolated cases reported from North, Central and South
artificial insemination in cattle. America, Asia and Europe. C.philippinensis is endemic in
certain areas of the Philippines and cases have been
Treatment reported from Thailand and Japan.
humans. Give fluid replacement if dehydrated.
Erythromycin may help shorten severe infections. Reservoir and mode of transmission
Humans are probably the principal reservoir for C. philip-
Animats. Treatment is usually unnecessary; it is of doubt- pinensis and are infected by eating raw fish (the inter-
ful value in C. jejuni and C. soli carriers. Local and mediate host) containing infective larvae. The worm
parenteral antibiotic treatment may control venereal infec- parasite lives in the intestines of humans and autoin feet ion
i tions in bulls and reduce abortions in a newly infected sheep occurs. Human faeces contain large numbers of ova which
Rock. contaminate water-courses and infect freshwater fish.With
Chepatica rodents are the reservoirs. Cats ands
S
Vaccination reservoir of C. aero hda. Humans may be i f cted b
> Humans. None. ingestion of Qva in the sail
IT
a Animals. Vaccination may reduce the incidence or lneubatlon period
infertility in C.fetus infections. Humans. Probably 3-4 weeks.
�m Legislation
Animals, Unknown, but C. hepatica ova need two
Humans. The condition is notifiable if thought to be months to embryonate and then one month to mature in a
food-poisoning in many countries. Campylobacteriosis
� rodent's liver. For C. philippinensis the cycle has only
�oy
40 Capillariasis
Cal scratch disease 41
recently been clarified, but the incubation period is not yet children eating soil. Sanitary disposal of faeces. Cook fish
known. thor
cilnfcel features Animals. Impractical.
Humans. C. hepatica: acute and subacute hepatitis. C.
philippinensis: progressive weight and protein loss due to Treatment
�r i diarrhoea and malabsorption. C. aerophila: fever and Animals. Mebendazole.
- m coughing.
Animals. Inappropriate.
- - Animals. Unknown.
-- - ix'��ta�av•-y--�—_a
,._ •.._:: =.� Legislation
---. Pathology Humans. May be notifiable in endemic areas.
f _ f Humans- C. philippinensis: the lesions are confined to
the small intestine. The jejunal villi are obliterated with Animals. None.
massive accumulations of worms and ova. C. hepatica: the
liver lesions consist of enlargement with foci of granulation
tissue containing worms and ova. C. aerophila: worms ore- Cat scratch disease
sent in epitlielial lining of respiratory tract causing
_� •._...� o.- ,°. - -,. , Cat scratch fever,benign (yrnphoreticulosisJ
neumonths.
A longed regional lymphadenopathy res ing from cat
Animals. Unknown.
scratc s presumed to be infective in rigin. It occurs
- - worldw'
v' The caus ve agent is unknown, ut is possibly a Gram-
:.. Special Investigations g P Y
Humans. C, hepatica: Hepatic biopsies reveal nodules negative bacil There is no vac ne.
containing parasites and eggs- Eggs are not present in fae-
°'`� w` ces. C. hill inensis: examine faecal samples for s Reservoir And rn a of nsmission
P PP• P gg •
larvae or adult worms_ C. aerophila: eggs may apo Cats may in y be the rese or merely mechanical carriers.
The majority of cases been bitten or scratched by cats,
sputum or in biopsy specimens, ! Y
although some ins ces Mowed trauma b inanimate
\
Y
Animals. Demonstrate the parasites in rodents or fish at objects.
post mortem examination.
Incubation iod
Prognosis Humans. 3 4 days_
Humans. Fatality rates of up to 10 per cent for untreated
C.philippinensis occur and the relapse rate is high. Animals. nknown.
` - `9 ,¢of ' Animals. Signs of infection in animals are not Clinic features
t ~~ Hunt s. A prolonged or recurrent lymphaden achy
recognized.
__b,�_.. ..�-,
--o xhic may last up to two years but which usually reso
y_. Preventlon Nit four months. Initially a red papule develops at the
- '- Humans. Control rodents and improve hygiene. Prevent site of inoculation. When the site is the eyelid or
50 Clostridia!diseases Coenurosis 51
r° Y� subcutaneous gas formation. Cl.perfringens causes vari- pregnancy, and Iambs which are to be kept for breeding
ely of profound toxaemias with cloudy swelling of should be vaccinated at three months of age.
parenchymatous organs and excess fluid, ofte blood-
stained or containing a plasma clot, in serous vities. In Treatment
• pulpy kidney disease of Iambs the renal co ex can he Humans. Radical surgery of infected wounds is needed,/
washed away under running water. and antibio is therapy(e.g. penicillin with use of antitoxin
Provision o yperbaric oxygen may help.
S cial investigations f
Hu ans. Culture of the organism fro�•�� .� g patients is rarely Animals. Larg doses of intravenous crystalline enicillin
help I unless related to food isolates ' suspected food- followed by longe acting preparations may sa a propor-
rv�e•� poisoning. tion of tetanus orb ckleg cases if given car �!
a.
Animals. Stain smears of affecte muscle exudate to Vaccination
show Gra -positive bacilli in pro usion- Spore position Humans. Routine teta s toxoid munizalion is best
^ = =_� and size wit n the bacillus may i icate the species. Fluo- given in childhood. Boosle oses ' adults are needed espe-
t rescent antib y stains are availa le to identify. Cl. novyi, cially following injury. Passi munization with specific i
Cl, seplicum a C!. chauvoei. oxin in gut contents may immunoglobulin is used in un* unized. -
` be demonstrate by intraveno s inoculation of extracts
k y into mice. Animals. Killed vaccine re usua y given in combination
against all the prevalent ostridial dr.eases of the area.
Prognosis
Humans. Gas gangr e s a high fatality if untreated. Legislation
"' ate: The case fatality rate r tetanus is 30-90 poisoning notifiable in
��-��4-� > per cent even Humans. Tetanu and food-
( when treated. Food-poi ing is usually self-limiting, most countries.
Animals. Clostridial to emia is usually fatal in Animals. Bl III is notifiable in some co tries of
unvaccinated animals. Africa, Cen a] and South America, Asia and Europe
including t Channel Isles, but not Great Britain. laugh-
Preve
ntion ter policy or cattle in the Channel Isles, Belgium, Ro ania
Humans. Clean ounds thor ughly and always sterilize and for sheep and cattle in Luxembourg, Korea and Ja an.
`� =��"�?' ;•� surgical instrume S. Routinely i munize children and give
'-` antitoxin after w undin if the a `ent was not immunized. COer1uCOSiS
Booster doses o tetan s toxoid a necessary if ten years /T\
�40._��•_-`=�����'' have elapsed nee the last dose. ood food hygiene is
(Coenuriasis, gid (in sheep))
essential.
�Q A rare parasitic disease in humans which may cause severe
and slowly progressive disease caused by the intermediate
Animals. revent wound contaminat n during lambing, stage of a dog rape�vorm.
=m shearing, astration and docking. n farms where The causative agents are Coenurus cerebralis, C. serialis
s'D clostridial isease recurs,cattle between s monts an hd two
�m and C. brauni(Cestoda).There is no vaccine.
years of ge should be vaccinated at 1 ast two months C. cerebralis and C. serialis occur worldwide in tem-
before tt a period of risk, usually in spri and summer, perate climates. C. bra uni occurs on y in Africa.
Breedin sheep should be vaccinated a nually in late r`
FI�
ih
52 Coenurosis Coiurado rick fever 53
Reservoir and mode of transmission j Prognosis
Definitive hosts are dogs and wild canidae. Intermediate Humans. Poor with little hope for complete recovery,_,
osts of C. cere ralis are sheep in which the larval form
occurs in the brain. C. serialis occurs in the connective Animals. The tapeworm has little effect on dogs but mom
^n, tissues of rabbits and hares and C. brauni in wild rodents. tality in sheep showing nervous signs is high.
Gravid proglotrids with eggs are excreted from the defini-
tive hosts and the intermediate host is infected by ingesting Prevention
these eggs from the contaminated environment. The pars- Humans. Adopt strict personal hygiene. Prevent doggs
site penetrates and grows into a large cyst. The cycle fouling- the environment and vegetables, etc. Norm all
completes when dogs consume infected tissue of the inter- dogs.
mediate host containing the cysts.
Animals. Prevent dogs From eating carcasses of inter-
Incubation period mediate ho��and cook offal before feeding.
Humans. Uncertain but sometimes prolonged.
Animals. Varies depending on the growth rate of the I Treatment
parasite and its location in sheep. In dogs no clinical signs Humans. Probably atbendazole and praziquantel may be
occur.
useful.
Clinical features Animals. Tapeworms can be eliminated from dogs by
Humans. T e may be the neglolical consequences of oral arecoline hydrobromide or praziquantel. Removing
brain c sts (e.g. paraplegia). Cysts in the eye give in and cysts from the brain of affected sheep by trephining has
oss of visio been attempted but is rarely worthwhile.
Animals. Clinical signs vary depending on the location of Legislation
the coenuri in the brain of sheep. They include circular Humans and animals. None.
movements, uncoordination, paralysis and convulsions.
Mortality is high_ Dorado tick fever
Pathology IMou ain fever]
Humans. There is meningoencephalitis owing to the inva-
sion of the parasite cysts and their pressure effects on the A febrile iral disease transmitted by ' s from small
brain. In humans,aberrant forms of the cysts develop in the rodents, in i north-western states the USA, Britisli
Q eye(ophthalmic coenurus)with chorioretinal lesions. Columbia and A la.Though u Ily benign it can cause
encephalitis in ehildre .
Animals. Encephalitis from the trauma of the migrating the causative agent r olorado tick fever virus
�Q parasite.
(Reoviridae). There is a accine.
M Special investlgations Reservoir and m e oT transmission
gLO Humans. Biopsy affected tissue to identify the parasite- These in
sm l wild animals and ticks.The yr cycles
�� between squir els and small rodents and the i k,
Animals. Examine dog faeces for tapeworms and their Dermacenior andersoni. Virus is transmitted from stage to
eggs after purging. stage in tic s but not transovarially. Humans are accidental
SWIMT—
�o
Y
i
70 Diphyllobothriasis
Dipylidiasis 71
Animals. Unknown but presumably as for humans, in
�T dogs and cats. WPYfiIdlaSis
rare cause of diarrhoea and abdominal pain occurring Clinical features worldwide usually in children. It results rom infection
Humans. The condition is usually asym somatic. Some with a dQ&- r cat tapeworm. Most human cases have been
atients develop vitamin B,_ deficiency aemia. Massive recorded in the USA and Europe, y •
3 feelion may cause diarrhoea and intest' al obstruction. The causative agent is Dipydidium caniturm (Cestoday t
There is no vaccine. r .
An als. No clinical signs are see in dogs and cats.
Hea infection with larvae can kill the fish intermediate Reservoir and mode of transmiesion
host. Definitive hosts are does cats and their wild counter
parts.
Intermediate hosts are the fleas, Ctenoeephalides Canis and
Pathol y C. fells. Gravid ro lottids
Humans. The presence of the large tapeworm, 3 to to d. fe iv p g pass in t e of e
ggs are a into the environment and
metres ton , in the inlesti can cause mechanical a ingested by fleas, in which cysticercoids develop. Dogs
obstruction. legaloblastic a emia occurs owing to vita- and cats are infected by ingesting the infected flea and
min Ij,ideficie y.
cysticercoids develop in the gut into adult worms. Humans
Animals. Subcli 'cal. In ish, myosins and possibly even are accidentally infected by ingesting fleas.
death occur in heavy 'nfe ation. Incubation period
Special lnvestlgatio Humans and animals. Uncertain.
Humans and anima . identify characteristic eggs in Clinical features
faeces. Humans. Diarrhoea with characteristic
Lids (melon seed shape) a gravid pere i-
0 appear in faeces. Rarely there s
Prognosis
abdominal pain and anal itching.
Humans. Usuall benign
Animals. Usually subclinical, though anal irritation is
Animals. Usual y benign, but avy infection may be seen rarely.
fatal to fish.
Pathology
Prevention Humans. Adults worms in small intestine reach 10-80 c►n
1 Humans and animals. Dispose of f ces hygienically. in length.
Educate for p oper cooking of fish. Preez fish or salt cure
before mark ing. Animals. Enteritis occurs rarely in dogs.
ILL
Trestmen Special investigations"' Humans and animals. Identify characteristic Humans and animals. Anthelmintics, especially mobile
Aroglottids resembling melon seeds in faeces.
niclosami e,quinacrine and praziquantel.
Legisle on Prognosis
Human and animals. None. Humans and animals. Usually asymptomatic with no
m
sequelae.
�o'
72 Dugbe viral fever Dugbe viral fever 73
MME
Prevention depr scion, weight loss, nasal discharge, dysentery and
Humans. Control dog and cat fleas with insecticide. ab rtion.
v
Animals. Worm dogs and cats reeu ontrol fleas Path logy
on dogs and in their surroundings. Human None characteristic.
Treatment Animals. here may be enteritis with in(estinaf h emor-
Humans. Niclosamide, praziquantel, rhage; hyper is and haemorrhage in lymph no s:
Animals. Control fleas with insecticides. Specific tape- Special investi tlons
worm remedies include niclosamide. Humans and at mats. Isolate virus om blood.
Scrological tests ind a haemagglutinatio inhibition and
Legislation complement fixation to s.
i
Humans and animals. None.
Prognosis
Dugbe viral fever Humans. Uncertain.
{Nairobi sheep disease(East Africa),ganja India)]
Animals. In sheep, mortality o Nairobi sheep disease
A tick-borne viral disease of sheep,cattle nd goats, occur- may be 70-90 per cent, but goats a less seriously affected.
ing in Nigeria and neighbouring coup ies, causing fever Dugbe and ganjam are more be g
nd dysentery. Humans are occ ovally infected in
c ildhood.
Prevention
he causative agent is Dugb virus, closely related to Humans. impose strict la ratory safe
t Nai bi sheep disease virus(B yaviridae).
i Animals, Qarantine or rohibit imports f live anirnals
t Resery Ir and mode of ensmission from infected countries Control ticks in enzo tic areas.
Nairobi s ep disease a d ganjam viruses cycle between
sheep and g is and t it ticks, dugbe between cattle and Treatment
their ticks. H smen nd their families are infected by tick Humans. Sympto atic therapy.
bites. L.aborator in [ions have been reported.
Incubation per d Animals. None
Humans. 4-5 ays.
Vaccination
> Animals. -15 days.
Humans. N nc.
tr Clinical eatures Animals. accine can be used to protect animals moving
L Human . Symptoms include f er, rigors, prostration, to infected areas.
14, weakn ss, lassitude, nausea, vomit , diarrhoea and pos-
sibly maculopapular rash lasting a fe ays. Legisla on
ED Human , None.
A tmals. Fever, sometimes biphasic, o rs with
m
D
Z
Echinococcosls 75
74 EchlnococCOSIs
Animals, Notifiable in sore Central American and shock or secondary bacterial infection may result from n►p-
`r tore of cyst.
Caribbean countries.
Echinococcosis
ii Anirnals. Usually no clinical signs.
[Hydatid disease, hydatid cyst, hydatidosisl Pathology
Infection by the cystic larval form of a canine tapeworm. Humans. This depends on the local ion of the cysts which,
compress the surrounding tissues. An E.
The main causative agent is Echinococcus granulosus. on enlargement,
other cchinococcal species, E. and ilocuaaris, E. granulosus cyst consists of an inner germinal laver which
oligarthus and E. vogeli, are less common (Cestoda). may bud to form daughter cysts which can spread widely if
There is no vaccine the parent cyst ruptures. The outer laminated wall of cyst
E. granulosus is widely distributed in sheep-farming may calcify and the cyst remain asymptomatic. In E multy
areas throughout the world. E. »rullilocularis is prevalent locularis there is not a substantial outer wall and cysts
in Arctic regions but is spreading into eastern and central aggressively invade tissues.
Europe.
Animals. No lesions .occur in dugs which harbour the
Reservoir and mode of transmission tapeworm (except for enteritis in heavy infestations), but
the hydatid cysts in sheep cause considerable condemnation
Sheep form the main intermediate host of E. granulosus, of meat and
but camels, caribou and other ungulates may be inter- loss o[ production.
mediate hosts.J2RV,s, foxes and other canidae are final host
reservoirs. Tapeworms in dogs shed nip, wWd;,art'^ U1r Special investigations
ons
f U.�rPnand humans are inf_ ected lain d0Z faecss Nwrrans. Localize carcass cysts by X-ray.ultrasound and
byte in stion of e s which c n to a environ- other imaging techniques. The Caroni skin test is
me dog hair vegetab es. Dogs are infected by eating unreliable. Serological test include complement fixation,
n
e cysts. ELISA, latex agglutination and imrnuodiffusion tests
raw offal containing t . i.-..
The intermediate hosts of E. multilocularis are rodents,
Aninials. Purge dogs and examine faeces for tapeworms.
especially voles, with faxes as the main definitive hosts. t
The intermediate host of E. vogeli is the paca and the Serological tests are being developed for intermediate
spring rat, with the bush dog as the definitive host. hosts. `
Incubation period
Prognosis *��
ffurnans. Months to many years. Humans. This varies with the site and activity of cysts.
There is hi eh fatali ' rorn E. nttrlrilocularis and from cere-
_' Anirrrals. frggs are shed in dog faeces from six weeks after rat cysts of E. granulosus. Ris '
infection.
Animals. Subclinical in intermediate and final hosts.
Clinical features
Humans. Symptoms depend on the site of the cyst and its Prevention r
pressure on surrounding tissues. Commonly liver cysts Humans. Wash hands after handling dogst avoid dot;fae-
cause abdominal pain and sometimes jaundice. Long cysts ces and p event dogs soiling rhr immediate a rn 11 onmeq, �
m cause chest pain, cough and secondary infection. E. milli- eegetables et . Apply laboratory safety preeauttows when �-
m
locularis causes more severe invasive disease. Anaphylactic han ing worms and eggs. (.
- 76 Echinoslomiasic Epidermic polyarllrritis 77
Animals. Systematically and regularly worm dogs to Incubation period
eradicate infection. Prevent dogs scavenging carcasses and umansand animals. Uncertain.
• raw offal. Bury sheep carcasses. '
Cli -cel features
Treatment Hun s. It is often asymptomatic but abdominal pain
Ifumons. Surgically remove cysts. Mebendazole and and diar oea occasionally occur.
albendazole may be useful.
Animals. U ally mild or subclinical.
Animals. Worm dogs using an anthelmintic effective
against tapeworms(e.g. praziquantel). Pat;tiology
Humans and anima Mild enteritis and eve ulceration
Legislation are possible.
i humans. The condition is notifiable in some countries,
<< including Australia, New Zealand and some European Spacial investigations
countries. Humans and animals. Ide tify eggs in f aces.
Animals. Slaughterhouse and waste food legislation in Prognosis
some countries requires sterilization of infected offal. Humans. It is usually asyrn om tc, or there may be
1 Compulsory burial orsheep carcasses and exclusion of clogs mild symptoms with no sequelae.
? from abattoirs is required in the UK where meat inspection j
legislation requires condemnation of affected organs. The Animals. A benign infection.
disease is notifiable in cattle and sheep in some Central and
South American and European countries, Cyprus, New Prevention
Zealand, and New Guinea. Humans. Avoid eating r snails.
EehinostorniaS4s Animals. Avoid feedi g raw fish to dome tic animals.
I J - inostornalidosis) Treatment
A re ively mild worm infection caused bye �ng under
Humans. Praziqu ntel.
cooked ails, mainly in India, China,Sout ast Asia and Animals. None
the East In *es.
The causa ive agents are ape s of Echinosloma Legislation
(Trematoda).Th e is no vaccine Humans and a imals. None.
Reservolr and mode enemission Epidemi pojyarth itis
Definitive hosts includ w variety of wild and domestic
animals and some b' s in ad on to humans. Two inter (Murray vall y rash, Ross River disease. Ross River fever,
mediate hosts inc de a snail and a Cher mollusc or a fish, arthropod-b me viral arthritis and rash, epide
Humans and er definitive hosts ar fected on eating polyarthritis d rash)
undercook snails. A febrile viral disease associated with a skin rash and
inflammation of joints. It is transmitted by mosquito bite
I� r
R
9J Gastrodiscoidiosis Giardiosis :xf
0:
countries of South America,Africa, Europe and Asia us'ng Pathology
umans and animals. Worms attach to mucosa
killed multivalent vaccines against the strains Prevprevale tin
he region. Because of the risks of masking infecti i and aecum and ascending colon, producing local in m- ,
'i c nfusing serological tests, vaccination is prohi rted in n tion.
k.
c ntries in which disease has been eradicated.
_^ Spe 'el investigations
Huma and animals_ identify eggs in face
Legis tion � '
Humans_ None. Prognosis
®$.. Humans. The disease is usually ptomatic, unless j
Animals. olifiable with slaughter policy in many there is heavy infe tation_
PF= countries.
Animals. Subclinical r miI ransient illness.
Gastrodis idiasis
+i Prevention
-�_ ]Amphistarniasis)
Humans. Ensure good rso l hygiene and sanitary dis-
A flatWOTM infectio of the ecum, occasionally causing posal of faeces.
diarrhoea.It is acqui d by in esting eggs on aquatic leaves,
in India, Malaysia an Sout East Asia. Animals. Preven igs from eating a uatie plants,
The causative agent is G strodiscoides (Amphislomum)
hominis(Trematoda). h e is no vaccine. Treatment
.' Humans. Pr iquantel and(etrachlorethyl a are used.
Reservoir and mode ttransmiesion
i• Worms inhabit tite la g intestine of the definitive host, Animal3. one attempted.
-_ � including humans, gs in India) and the mouse deer
(Tragulus napin) in slay ia. The eggs pass in the faeces. Legi ation
■ Miracidia hatch a infect a snail (Helicorbis coenosus) Hu ans and animals. None.
``u" r I which may be the•ntermedia a host. Cercariae emerge and
encyst on squab plants and mans are infected by eating Glardlasis
the leaves_ [Lambliasis,giardia enteritis]
6•
• Incubation eriod
A mild, protozoal enteritis usually acquired by the human
Ifumans. ncertain. faecal-oral route, but occasionally from water contami-
nated by animal fa It occurs worldwide, especially in—
a<<. e Animals. Unknown.
areas o poor sanitation.
The causative agent is Giardia lamblia(Protozoa). There
Clinic 1 features is no vaccine.
�3e:L«oa-t.7
Hum s and animals. The c rtdition is usually Reservoir and made of transmission
subcl nical, but abdominal discomfo t and diarrhoea with Humans are the main reservoir, with transmission by
"�- hea infestation may occur. faecal-oral spread especially in young children in nurseries.
Animal reservoirs, especially the beaver and muskrat in
� i
73
96 Ciardiasis �'�
North America, may,contaminate drinking w Animals. sure sanitary disposal of se%wag_��pod V. J.
r + to cause large wa(er-borne outbreaks. processing of sewage ef3uent.
y
Treatment 4
Incubation period Humans. Metronidazole.
Humans. 1-4 weeks.
Animals. Inappropriate.
Animals, Unknown.
Legislation
Clinical features Humans. Not usually notifiable.
Humans. There is intermittent abdominal pain and
distension, flatulence, and prolonged or intermittent diar- Animals. None.
rhoea and steatorrhoea, with weight loss. Malabsorption
can last for several weeks. fenders
Animals. It is usually subdinical but can cause
[ rcy)
malabsortion diarrhoea and weight loss in dogs and cats. In A r e, potentially fatal, bacterial disease transmitt from
caged birds there is anorexia and emaciation during which infec d horses. Once common worldwide but ow eradi-
diarrhoea occurs with loose light-coloured droppings. cat&, om many countries, it is still seen i Asia, North
Death follows eventually. Africa,a tern Europe and Asia,especiali ongolia.
The cau. tive agent is Pseudomonas allei(bacterium).
Pathology "There is no v cine.
s ; Humans- Enterocyte damage occurs only in severe cases. Reservoir and de of trap lesion
I Animals. Occasionally there is vinous atrophy in the Horses, mules and d keys a the main reservoir. Trans-
t mission between anima i y ingestion or inhalation of
small intestine. infected nasal discharge ich contaminate the environ-
ment. Cats and dogs ay be ' fecled from contaminated
Special investigations horse meat. Hum infection by contamination of
Humans. Identify cysts or trophozoites in faecal smears wounds by close ntact with inf d horses or carcasses,
I or biopsies from the small intestine. or laboratory a idents.
Animals. Examine faeces for the parasite. Ineubatio period
Humans. 1-14 days.
Prognosis
i ! Humans and animals. The illness is self-limiting, with Anima Days to months.
complete recovery.
CII cal features
`t H mans. Initially there is fever, malaise and muscle and
Prevention
Humans. Ensure good personal hygiene and sanitary dis- j nt pains often leading to pneumonia, pleurisy and
posal of faeces. Filtrate and chlorinate drinking water, and yaemia. There is cellulitis with painful nodules in the skin,
boil water to destroy cysts and nasal mucosa, with a foul discharge. Untreated disease
progresses to death within three weeks in most cases,
118 Lassa fever V Leishmania.iis 119
Pathology
I Leishm niasis
i Humans. Leucopenia and exudative pharyngiti re seen.
Cutaneous leishnmantasis: Chiclelcer, endia pi
Later there are petechial haemorrhages, interstitial ro u spu an-
�.
bols,uta,and buba(in the Americas);oriental sore, Aleppo �,c
neumonitis and fatty degeneration of a liver. An u usual eosinophilic necrosis occurs in he malpighian boil (in the Old World); Baghdad boil, Delhi boil, I3auru `"l�``
j
' teen with s lenome al nd there is focal ulcer (in the Middle East).
bo es of the s _
p P g y. �
Y,'scerol leishmaniasis: kola-czar]-��
' necr is in all tissues. 4 "
' Anima! Unknown. A protozoal disease, usually transmitted by flies, which
may take the form of a skin ulcer or widespread lesions inrN
Special i eatigatfo the viscera.
Humans. olate the virus fro he blood,urine or throat The causative agents of cutaneous ieishnianiasis are _ .
washings. Se logical tests in, ude complement fixation Lershmania mexicana and L. brasiliensis in the Americas, r'
and L. tro
and fluorescent nobody tests. ica in the Old World; and of visceral A
Icishinaniasis, L. donovani, L. infantum and L. chagasi. 3
Animals. Isolat the virus i tissue culture(there appears There is no vaccine.
to be no immune r onse i the rodent host}. The geographic distribution of the cutaneous disease is
j! Texas, Mexico, Central and South America, India,
Prognosis Pakistan, the Middle East, southern Russia, the Mediterra-
` ± Humans. The fatality r e is 3 5 per cent with stow recov- nean coast and Africa. The distribution of visceral
1, ery of survivors, someti es leaving persistent deafness. Icishnianiasis is poorly reported,but foci probably occur in
the Mediterranean basin, the Middle East, India, China, -
Animals. A benign i fe ion in rodents, Nlexico. Central and South America, and Africa.
Prevention
11 Humans. Contr rodents Isolate and barrier-nurse Reservoir and mode of transmisslon
patients.Give me ical surveill nce to contacts and disinfect Wild animals,dogs and humans serve as reservoirs. Domes-
( i ` all materials a equipment ed in nursing. Maximum tic dos be an important reservoir for puma` ris.
containment I oratory facilities re required for handling llurnans are the only known reservoir in India, in ecte My
virus. the bites of sand fly vectors including Phleboronreis sergenti
l; and P. papatasii. Ycrson-to-person, congenital and blood- --
Animals. one. borne transmission of visceral leishrnaniasis are possible.
Treat nt
Huma s. Symptomatic therapy. Con leseent sera may Incubation period
be u d. Humans. Cutaneous: one week to several months;
' visceral: one week to several years.
A imals. Inappropriate.
1 gislation Animals. For the visceral form in dogs, one month to
Hijinans. The disease is notifiable in severs countries several years is reported.
including the UK. Australia and New Zealand.
,s
Animals. None.
;�a
" 120 Leishmaniasis
4_ Leprospirosis 121
l 3 Clinical features Prognosis
# ' Humans, In the cutaneous i ease, the primary lesion is a Humans. The cutaneous variety ranges from a mild self- p
P� dult the site of infection persisting for limiting infection to hid <<
ainf ul ulcer or nodule a a chronic an potentially dangerous
several months, with residual scarring. Further lesions may metastatic form. L. braziliensis is more likely to give rise to
develop in skin and mucous membranes. In the visceral chronic infection and disfigurement. The visceral form is .,*".^; '.
disease, intermittent irregular fever occurs with swears, usually fatal if untreated but responds well to treatment.
-ti•: Q,;,
enlarged spleen,weight loss and anaemia leading to asciles, Secondary infections (e.g. dysentery)are common. •
oedema, diarrhoea and secondary infections. Dark pi . pp o chronic s
ct+
Animals There is an inapparent r hikin infect ion
fi
mentation of the skin may occur. �
in dogs. The visceral form can be fatal. CO
Animals. L. mexicana causes ulcers of the skin in rodents 3
and other wild animals, usually at the base of the tail. L. Prevention D
1� braziiiensis causes a systemic infection with few skin lesions Humans. Identify cases and treat. Use insecticides in
in wild animals. No skin lesions have been found in dogs houses and buildings to control the vector. Avoid sandfly 3
Dogs infected by L. tropica may suffer from cutaneous bites. Remove infected dogs.
' lesions similar to those found in humans. L. donovani pro-
duces visceral lesions in dogs, with enlarged lymph nodes, Animals. Apply insecticides with a residual action in and
liver and spleen. around buildings and to vector breeding places. Eliminate
' rubbish tips and other vector breeding places. Keep dogs
Pathology indoors after sundown. Remove dog reservoirs.
1 Humans. Infiltration by inflammatory cells at the inocu-
lation site supports the growth of the parasite. This
progesses into a large area of chronically inflamed granu- Treatrnent
lation tissue. The overlying skin undergoes hyperplasia and Humans. Use sodium antimony gluconate and other
' then necrosis with spreading ulceration. Metastatic lesions pentavalent antimoniaJs,and amphotericin B.
r '
1 occur with a similar inflammatory reaction. The lesions
t may heal, become fibroscd or extend indefinitely to pro Animals. Not recommended because of (tie danger of
duce considerable disf(gureruent. In visceral leishrnaniasis spreading infection.
+: there is gross enlargement of liver and spleen,and anaemia.
' legislation
Animals. In dogs, as for humans. Rodents show only a Humans. Notifiable in a few countries, including Israel,
small ulcer on the skin. Spain and Italy.
Special investigations Animals. Leishmaniasis is notifiable in dogs in Morocco,
Humans. Identify organisms in scrapings from lesions. Cuba and Israel. There is a slaughter policy for affected
Culture organism from biopsies. An intradermal skin test dogs in Brazil,Spain and Greece,
becomes positive early in illness. Serological tests include
ELISA and fluorescent antibody tests. L@ptosplf Osfs
-A Animals. Demonstrate the.parasite in lesions or viscera (1yei1's disease, haemorrhagic jaundice (Lenrn.cpira
by stained sniear and by culture on suitable media; iclerohaemorrhagiae), canicola fever (L. camcola), dairy
worker fever L. hard o �
serology. l )1•
_. _ _ . . ..... r...-._.- �TbNt�C ,PI►cMo vV�Y rwRt--t)zailor�, 119 1- - NESS AJ fUutts sOrc NE�ei?art,►
n to ►+eak or ploblcros and the bitch and the queen may nt fever, loss 0f weig t, oss of appetite anti a suggcsung a realerx osure to rn ection
l harbour'dormant'larvae in her tissues for severitl . "�; 'j+crxrstent cough. 1"low•ever, the clinical picture i in
of the parasite in the disease pt
� ries greatly though a relatively constant feature. Thus, as compared with normal healthv
:nulatcd with months or }ears, transmitting the infection io -�
zn 'in standard several litters. Immediate tactical control consists T o'413 ligh(50%)and persistent circulating cosmos ideals of which , /o are serohepa o thnsc
eft e dog. of .recognizing and anticipating prenatal an L, ' •;�hilir.The eye lesions caused b}'these larvae have; charoidoretinitis, uveitis, hepatomegaiy
:1tropine is transmammary infections and treating puppies _ cc IV cs>nsiJerable attention in recent N'ears,� asthma showed respectively
aq"�� and
ds'and other within two weeks of birth. The evidence that %pc.:ially since they often resemble a rctrnobhs positive reactions, respectively. The clinic
various ecto- fenbendazole may reduce the number of larvae in (� �.�m= A mistaken diagnosis niat result, and on portance is difficult 10 estimate since infec
to cats, grey- the tissues of bitches(Dubey rg7q) indicates that � c►c,al occasions has resulted, in unnecessary not notifiable. However, in the Il(ospit
CT` rnudeation of the eyeball. The criteria used for a Tropical Diseases, London, zo--3o patient
Is. such treatment may pre►ent prenatal infection.
at a Buse of 5 More long-term control consists of regular treat- :�.►��osis of visceral larva migrans include (a) ioxocaral eye lesions are treated annual)}
hookworms of merits for adult ++'arms to lower or eliminate tucre;vtosis, a white blood count of greater than "the specific diagnosis of visceral larva n'
�- is coo/mm b cosin0 hills rester than to"ro; is based on the demonstration of the lesio
contamination of the environment and also W O P greaterlarvae
-isothioc:yano- measures to eliminate an established environ, CSC�•I e antra nti-B titre
o f tiniri tore oft :}01 G tests are a►'a)a Of thelb esadjunct to d agnnc cc(61i
n anthelrnintic mental%contamination. This is best achieved b} a �ositt and an a is g titre oft :zoo or more;(+� g
ther intestinal providing impervious surfaces to the kennels so ind Ig +i.levels greater than two standard dewi- et al. 1978). ;1 detailed account t 'era
gs. It is safe to that thew may he thoroughly and regularly '� ,riois above the normal for age and sex; and (e) migrans is given b} Beaver (i956,
'�r home ( Glickman et al. ry78). Visceral larva migrans also occurs in
n pregnant or cleaned. The eggs of the dog and cat ascarids may p n t ( - has extensnelc stud
ipurtant and a remain viable for several months, consecluentl►- a The condition is most usually Teen in children animals. of do(t nd
- .cu to five ears of age. Children of this age migration of dog and. cat ascarids in experi
ogle dose of So cursor or token disinfection is of little value. y
03 mmature and Since rodents may play an' part in the itccuently adopt the habit of dirt eating and where animals. Done et al. (tg6o) reported bra
Mild vomiting liCe_c}cles of the parasites, these should be t wirl is heavily contaminated with Toxocara eggs spinal cord lesions 'in pigs infected with 7
ID s s etc. the Ingestion of clinical signs of illness occurring about
ri c soil around doorstep ) g
A/or reversible exterminated from the kennels and catteries. 1G
a few dogs. , �� ►ci moderate amounts c soil may result in the after infection were associated with ens aps
y'isreral lava migrans OK CA s w.ke of large numbers of infecti►•e eggs.Since it is and death 0f larvae. Roneus(tU63)has repo
compound, is +
��rnmon to give young puppies to children as the migration of T. tali larvae in pigs.
to R i
1 is liven twice This condition of children is mauily caused by h �
ig/kR. It is very larvae of T. nuus, though the larval stages of G .-ra,mates,a special hazard ma} arise since it is the
5i �n u t►h ed ►+'ith Toxocara vitulorum(Goeze, t;Ki)"hr:
leonina, T. iati, Capillaria helialiru (of rodents) -C 1:puppy Py
o � ) owever, doorstep and garden s igz7 (s}n. :�+enasrerrrs zitulnrrun) occurs
rs is qS-too".� and Lagorhdasearii»ri+ror(ofwlid felines)etc.hale '*-- V'�
dos and pats also been incriminated.Potter(t 60)has compiled L_ , •.i laminated by domestic pets is not the sole or,in s intestine of cattle, zebu and the
g 9 p Z builal and is found in many parts of the v
or this dose a list of hosts bf ascarids which may be responsible Oki, the main danger. "There is �]ush-des
4 ��,lic health roblem w has ►'et has al been recorded from s an
di }j reported that for causing the visceral larva migrans s►ndrome. t is the (War n 1971).The miles measu t0 z
Jays harboured The entity is characterized by chronic granu- •.��Knue by the eeneLaL11zJ1tGs t lI
�rs icn:we foulin of ublic arks lac roun s and .i r i and the females ;o cm by 6 mm.Ths
les and viscera lomatous usually eosinophilic) lesions,associated _ mestic t not as thick as that of other large ascai
been infected +with lar►•ae of the above parasites, in the inner Na s with th
rcci3ily in large cities (Jacobs et al. ry- these worms therefore ha►e a soft, trai
organs of children, especially the liver, lungs, tape-
brain, sometimes the eye and also elsewhere. in i Naigh modern-dav man has largely s the appeir-ince. The body does not
ssential in ken- the child, larae migrate in the `somatic' c ns of mass hygiene, he to provide a towards the extremities. There are thr
',siticin the excreta of his pets. broad at the base and narrow anterior
na and 7. tali manner, as the}' ►►'uuld for example in a rodent,
na to a patent and on repeated infection large numbers may sc public health importance of human Tuxorara oesophagus is 3---}.5 mm-ly long and has a p
rated by regular occur in the body of the child. Beaver (tg66) has
rction in Great Britain has been re►iei►ed by granular ventriculus. The tail of the malt
yuent thorough reported on one case which had ;oo larvae per c •xxlruff(ry76). Some z% of the adult popuh- forms a small spike-like appendage. T
..n of the UK possess antibodies to IO.1-0cara, about ti►e pairs of post-cloaca) papa]
C`I exercise areas gram of hoer. a related entity, cutaneous lart•a 0 p -
i de impervious. m;krans, caused by canine hookworm larvae in fy `►•sigh the maiorit} of the sensitizations are anterior parr is large and double. The pr,
7 ,,.inptomatic. Additionally, a majont} have had papillae are variable in number. The spa
infection plays man is described on P. Zo6-
the situation is "I'he pathological entity consists of an cnlarged » khrect contact with dogs or cats through pet o.o-eight),
ht mm long. The vulva rs the
ismammary in- Iicer with eosinuphilic g ran ulomatoils lesions, kocrship. Higher prevalencies of scropositise- one of the body length from the
1
5 0 ENTERIC AND OTHER
BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
Campylobacteriosis James G. Fox
ETIOLOGY that shedding of Campylobacter sp. ranges
from less than 5% to a high of 90%.
Campylobacter is a genus of gram-nega- As with most enteric microbial pathogens,
tive, slender, curved, motile rods (1.5 to 5 fecal-oral spread, with foodborne and water-
µm by 0.2 to 0.5 µm) that occur singularly, borne transmission, appears to be the prin-
in pairs, or in chains with three to five cipal avenue for infection. Sources of the
spirals (Fig. 50-1). The cells can also be organism include contaminated meat prod-
curve-, S-, or gull-shaped. With the excep- ucts, particularly poultry and unpasteurized
tion of C. pylori, Campylobacter spp. have milk. Nosocomial infection of hospitalized
a single polar flagellum and microaerophilic animals is possible, as is exposure from
growth requirements. C. jejuni is the organ- other pets in a household (ferrets, hamsters,
ism routinely associated with diarrheal dis- birds, rabbits) and rural farm animals that
ease in dogs, cats, and people, as well as may shed the organism.
other domestic, wild, and laboratory ani-
mals. C. coli, distinguished from C. jejuni
on the basis of hippurate hydrolysis, is also PATHOGENESIS
isolated from diarrheic animals and people.
In addition, a new catalase-negative Cam- Severity of the disease is dependent on
pylobacter organism has been isolated from the number of organisms ingested by the
asymptomatic and diarrheic dogs, as well as host as well as previous exposure and de-
asymptomatic cats." velopment of protective antibody. Other en-
teric pathogens, such as parvovirus and co-
ronavirus, Giardia, or Salmonella may play
EPIDEMIOLOGY a synergistic role.--' Environmental, physio-
logic, or surgical stress may also exacerbate
Privately owned adult dogs and cats gen- the severity of the disease. A variety of
erally have a lower isolation rate of the virulence factors, such as enterotoxins, cy-
organism than strays or those maintained in totoxins, or adherence or invasion proper-
kennels or catteries, laboratories, or animal ties, are expressed by different C. jejuni/coli
shelters.' C. jejuni has been isolated from isolates. Blood and leukocytes in the feces,
21% and 29% of diarrheic cats and dogs, congestion, edema, ulcers of mucosa, and
respectively, compared with 4% isolation occasional sepsis in people suggest that the
from normal cats and dogs." In other studies, organism can be invasive. Experimental
the isolation rate from feces of mature dogs challenge in laboratory animals also indi-
and cats, with and without diarrhea, has cates that the organism can be isolated sev-
varied from 0% to 5.0%. Puppies and kittens eral days postchallenge from blood. Experi-
appear more likely to acquire C. jejuni and mental infections of puppies and kittens
show clinical disease, probably due to lack with strains isolated from people with diar-
I of previous exposure and development of rhea are less severe. Animals appear to be
protective antibody.Ga Studies of pups show more resistant or better adapted to these
538
I.
i
ENTERIC AND OTHER BACTERIAL INFECTIONS 539
"r
ar
r
` 'r! t�•� ,� '�i S� �� .ice..
Figure 50-1. Scanning electron microscopic view of C.
jejuni adhered to chick embryo cell (x 15,900). -�
isolates and,at most,develop watery mucoid of other pathogens. As with dogs, campylo-
diarrhea." bacteriosis is usually nonsymptomatic, and
if clinical signs are evident, the animal gen-
CLINICAL FINDINGS erally is less than 6 months of age. In a
survey of 159 cats from pounds, 17 shed C.
Dog jejuni in the feces, but of these only two cats
had bloody mucus-laden diarrhea. Giardia
In many cases dogs are asymptomatic car- sp. was present in both, combined with
riers of Campylobacter. The clinical syn- Isospora sp. in one cat and Toxocara sp. in
drome, when present, occurs most fre- the other. Another cat concurrently infected
quently in dogs less than 6 months of age. with Salmonella sp. and C. jejuni was de-
Also, animals may be more susceptible to pressed and anorectic but not diarrheic. Cul-
clinical disease when stressed by hospitali- tures of the two cats' feces after antibiotic
zation, concurrent disease, pregnancy, ship- therapy and clinical improvement were neg-
ment, or surgery. Cam pylobacter-associated ative for C. jejuni.'^ Chronic diarrhea in
diarrhea has a wide clinical spectrum in another cat that had serum antibodies to C.
dogs as well as people, ranging from mild, jejuni, plus positive culture for the organism,
loose feces, to watery diarrhea, to bloody abated when treated with chloramphenicol;
mucoid diarrhea. Acute campy lobacteriosis C. jejuni could not be recultured from the
that develops in puppies and some adult stool after therapy.15
dogs is manifest by mucus-laden, watery, or
bile-streaked diarrhea (with or without
blood and leukocytes) of 5 to 15 days' du- DIAGNOSIS
ration, partial anorexia, and occasional vom-
iting."" Elevated temperature and leuko- Rapid presumptive diagnosis is possible
cytosis may also be present. In certain cases, using either darkfield or phase-contrast mi-
diarrhea can be chronic of 2 or more weeks' croscopy. Fresh fecal samples are examined
duration, be intermittent, or in some cases for the characteristic darting motility of C.
be present for several months." jejuni. This method is especially sensitive
in people (and perhaps dogs and cats) during
Cat the acute stage of clinical diarrhea. Presence
of WBC should be ascertained, since they
In cats, clinical signs of campylobacter- are a common finding in people who are
iosis are poorly documented in the absence naturally or experimentally infected with C.
'ECTIONS ENTERIC AND OTHER BACTERIAL INFECTIONS 541
nan pop- tively alter the course of enteric disease. Campylobacter strains isolated from dogs
Iobacter- However, in some cases of severe diarrhea and cats. Campylobacter strains show in
osure to in dogs and cats, antibiotic therapy may be vitro susceptibility to furazolidone, as well
,istematic warranted. Antibiotic treatment of infected as gentamicin, neomycin, clindamycin, and
jogs and animals may be instituted to minimize ex- tetracycline. However, many strains may
antibody posure to human household members and carry plasmids that confer resistance to a
i animals other pets. Fortunately, strains of Campylo- variety of tetracyclines.
bacter isolated from animals and people are Several antimicrobial agents are usually
susceptible to several antimicrobial agents ineffective in treatment: penicillin, ampicil-
(Table 50-1). Erythromycin, the drug of lin, polymyxin B, trimethoprim, and vanco-
choice for Campylobacter-induced diarrhea mycin. In vitro resistance is also found to
in humans, may also be effective in the metronidazole and sulfadimethoxine.24 Many
rally and treatment of the disease in animals. Treat- Campylobacter strains produce (3-lactamase,
lave been ment of clinically affected cats and dogs has which accounts for the resistance to penicil-
ind thick- resulted in resolution of the illness and elim- lin and ampicillin.
e colonic ination of the organism as determined by
olon and Campylobacter-negative fecal cultures. It
elial cell must be cautioned, however, that failure to PUBLIC HEALTH
; of goblet eliminate C. jejuni with oral erythromycin CONSIDERATIONS
al glands from ferrets housed in a research environ-
epithelial ment has also been noted." It is now reco nized that C. jejuni/coli is
immatory Chloramphenicol has been used with a lea in cause of enteric isease ' 1
'athologic mixed results to treat Campylobacter-asso- n tat puppies and kittens can serve as
,d with C. ciated diarrhea in dogs and cats. Treatment sources of infection for people. Th
ome dogs in dogs has resulted in abatement of clinical is often severe in-pgajAe and in addition to
tunting of signs. However, the same organism has been carrhea may be characterized by vomiting, t
mina pro- reisolated after therapy has been completed. fever, and abdominal discomfort. Usually
:yperplas- It is possible that these dogs developed an the incriminated pets have been suffering
urring in- antibiotic-induced carrier state, as recog- from diarrhea and have been recently ac-
consisted nized in enteric Salmonella infections, or a quired from pet stores or kennels.'zs•26 How
-
Ion, char- protracted period of shedding of the Cam- ever, asymptomatic dogs and cats can To
vatic, hy- pylobacter sp., or that they became rein- be a source o in ection to people.2 " Risk
gh mitotic fected. A diarrheic cat treated with chlor- factors for acquiring C. jejuni enteritis have
`s.70 Using amphenicol showed clinical improvement included consumption of raw or under-
:er-like or- and fecal cultures after completion of the cooked chicken or foods contaminated by
i attached treatment were negative for C. jejuni. raw chicken and contact with puppies,
um. There Several other antibiotics are active against cats, or kittens.28-70 Veterinary practitioners
i the num
he lamina
ad of focal Table 50-1. Drug Therapy for Nonenteric Salmonellosis and Other Enteric Bacterial Infections in
,ular villi, Dogs and Cats'
;ed. There DOSE INTERVAL DURATION INFECTIONS
latation of DRUG SPECIES (mg/kg) ROUTE (hours) (days) USED
intestinal Erythromycin D 20 PO 12 5 Campylobacteriosis
:te in lam- C 10 PO 8 5
1 subacute Trimethoprim- B 12-15 PO. IV 12 7-10 Salmonellosis,shigellosis,
i in a dog sulfonamide yersiniosis
associated Amox(amp)icillin B 10-20 PO,IV 8 7-10 Salmonellosis,shigellosis
Chloramphenicol D 15-25 PO.SC. IV 8 5-7 Salmonellosis,shigellosis,
C 10-15 PO,SC 12 8 campylobacteriosis"•16•20
Metronidazole B 8-10 PO 8 5-10 Bacterial overgrowth
Tetracycline B 10-20 PO 8 42 Shigellosis, yersiniosis,
bacterial overgrowth
Gentamicin° D 2 IM,Sc 12 5 Yersiniosis, salmonellosis
Tylosin B 11 PO 8 42 Bacterial overgrowth
and treat- Cephalosporins B 10-20 PO 8 7 Yersiniosis
d diarrhea
or is It 'B = both dog and cat, D = dog. PO = oral, IV = intravenous, SC = subcutaneous, IM = intramuscular.
, n effect °Dose per administration at specified interval, expressed as mg/kg unless otherwise stated.
'Monitor for renal failure.
r
"4
88 CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS
Annie K. Prestwood
i'
ETIOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY vade the microvillous border of the intestine.
Two stages (types I and II) of meronts,which T
Cryptosporidium is a ubiquitous coccid- reproduce asexually, have been identified.
ian genus in the suborder Eimeriina, family Within 24 hours, trophozoites and type I r-
Cryptosporidiidae of the phylum Apicocom- meronts, containing six to eight merozoites,
plexa that inhabits the epithelium of the are present. The number of asexual multi-
respiratory and digestive systems of reptiles, plications by this type I meront is unknown
birds, and mammals. Infections of the ileum but is more than one, as evidenced by the
are most common, but gastric, respiratory, persistence of this stage. By 48 hours there
and conjunctival infections have been seen are numerous type II meronts, each contain-
in many hosts. Its oocyst is extremely small, ing four merozoites. By days 3 to 8, all
measuring either 4 to 5 µm or 6 to 8 µm in developmental stages are present—i.e., mer-
diameter and often is difficult to demon- onts differentiate into microgametocytes and
strate in the feces without special tech- macrogametes that, following fertilization,
niques. Although numerous species have form oocysts. Some oocysts that are pro-
been described, only two are recognized in duced are thick walled, whereas others are '
mammals based on oocyst sizes, namely C. thin walled. Sporulation occurs endoge-
parvum and Cryptosporidium sp., respec- nously, and thick-walled oocysts are shed
tively. The biology of Cryptosporidium sp. with the feces. Thin-walled oocysts excyst
is not well known and will not be considered within the lumen of the gut and invade other
further. In contrast, C. parvum is by far the cells, thus providing a means for the main-
most commonly occurring species in mam- tenance and progression of bowel infection
mals and,similar to Toxoplasma,has a wide in the absence of reinfection.
mammalian host range.' It has been reported A20Quyats of cryptosporidiai are spread via
from rodents, domestic livestock, cats, dogs, the fecal-oral route, and fecal con
people, and numerous wild mammals. Rum- of foodor drinking wa er is a common ~"
inants, especially calves, are considered source of infec inr�A arentl , relati
reservoir hosts. Cross-infection between var- few oocysts are necessar to 's- .
ious mammalian hosts occurs. Cryptospo- ease in peop e, as evi enced by waterbor e
ridia found in reptiles and birds apparently t`raii5Hi153 ou -
do not infect mammals, and some species p es an acci ental infection of laboratory
may be relatively host-specific. A high prev- personne .
alence of serum antibodies to cryptosporidia
in most species tested suggests that exposure
to the parasite is common.'
The life cycle of cryptosporidia differs PATHOGENESIS
from that of most other coccidians (Fig. 88-
1). They are located in parasitophorous vac- Cryptosporidia are either primary patho-
uoles at the cell's microvillous surface rather gens or secondary invaders in a variety of t
than within the host cell cytoplasm (Fig. 88— immunosup press ive diseases of animals and
2).'. Furthermore, the oocyst contains four people. Crowding and unsanitary practices
naked sporozoites and sporulates within the increase the risk of exposure. Cryptosporid-
body of the host so that oocysts are directly ial diarrhea is common among calves in"calf
infective when shed. Upon ingestion by a nurseries," where it can be a primary path-
susceptible host, sporozoites excyst and in- ogen. Similarly, this parasite•is an important
847
x.
CB YPTOSPORIDIOSIS 849
been reported in young swine, lambs, and
foals. The coccidian is fairly common in
birds, infecting the digestive and respiratory
tracts and the bursa of Fabricius, and may
be a primary pathogen. In captive snakes,
Cryptosporidium causes gastritis and sub-
sequent vomiting. since it parasitizes the
stomachs of these reptiles.
People
;
P
People of all ages may become infected
with cryptosporidia, and severity of disease
depends upon the immunocompetence of
the host. Fulminating, rapidly fatal disease
occurs in people with AIDS. Individuals
with congenital immunodeficiency disease
may survive for years with persistent cryp- s
tosporidiosis. Immunocompetent persons
may be infected readily with Cryptosporid-
ium, and outbreaks of epizootic proportions
R
have occurred because of contamination of
municipal water supplies. Most people de-
velop transient clinical signs and recover.
Figure 88-2. Scanning electron photomicrograph of Infection among veterinary students is com-
various stages of Cryptosporidium on the epithelial cell mon after contact with infected calves. Se-
microvillous surface of the cloaca of a young chicken
(x ,,ppp). (Courtesy of Sandy L. White. Lille Research vere stress or concurrent infection by viruses
Lahr. Greenfield. 1N. From Current WL: AS,M News or bacteria serve to exacerbate the diarrheal
54 60 —612. 1988, with permission.) syndrome.
In people, there has been a causal connec-
tion between oocysts being shed in the stool
t-_�:,513eDrimental
and Gl signs." The typical prepatent period infection of healthy pups is 5 to 7 days. Clinical signs that may last
resulted in oocyst shedding without accom- from 2 to 26 days in immunocompetent
pativing disease.; Naturally occurring cryp- people may include nausea, abdominal
tosporidiosis has been reported in a 1-week- cramps, low-grade fever, and anorexia. Oc d
S old pup that died after an episode of diarrhea casionally, episodes last longer.15 Diarrhea
and dyspnea.9 whereas other pups, infected may be profuse, and dehydration is a com-
mon with cryptosporidia, did not show clinical mon sequela. Nonsymptomatic infections do
signs suggestive of infection."Cryptosporid- occur, especially in recovery phases of the
iusis has been described in two immunosup illness. Conversely, symptomatic pat
pressed pups with distemper. Crvents
can have intermittently negative stools.
sporidial infection has been diagnose in an
I a u t dog with persistent diarrhea, ympho- DIAGNOSIS
p asmacvtic enteritis, and malabsorption
syndrome and no obvious cause for immu-
nosuppression." Fecal Examination
Since cryptosporidia) oocysts are directly
Calves and Other Animals infective when shed in the feces, caution
must be used to avoid accidental infection.
Lrvptosporidial infection is an important To destroy the oocyst. 1 part 100% formalin
cause of fulminating diarrhea among young (38% formaldehyde) should be mixed with s:
calves. Cryptosporidial diarrhea also is an 9 parts fluid feces before performing fecal
important disease among young ruminants examination procedures. Samples should
found in zoos. Less severe infections have also be formalinized prior to shipment to a
A
CR YPTOSPORIDIOSIS 851
t j
0 �Y +tE3i.,
Figure 88-3. Cryptosporidial oocyst as seen with Figure 88-4. Wet preparation of cryptosporidial
bright-field microscopy using Sheather's sugar flotation oocvsts. Their appearance is accentuated by lack of
(x 160). internal staining(crystal violet; x 125).
has been described whereby tissue impres- the intestines but are usually most numerous
sions were stained with stains used for blood in the distal small intestine.
cells.' Excellent results were obtained.
Specimens may be fixed in Bouin's or THERAPY
formalin solutions (see Appendix 12). Sam-
ples must be fixed within hours of death or To date, there have been few drugs used
biopsy because autolysis causes rapid loss successfully for treating cryptosporidiosis.20
of the intestinal surface containing the or- Infections in immunocompetent animals or
ganisms. Microscopic lesions consist of persons are self-limiting, and full recovery
varying degrees of villous atrophy, reactive soon ensues. Fluid replacement may be nec-
lymphoid tissue, and inflammatory infil- essary to combat the severe dehydration that
crates in the lamina propria, consisting of accompanies the disease. Parenteral fluids
neutrophils, macrophages, and lympho- usually are more effective than oral fluids,
cytes. Parasites may be found throughout since in some cases, addition of fluid to the
GI tract may stimulate more diarrhea. Anti-
biotic therapy for eliminating secondary bac-
terial invaders may be necessary.
Spiramycin, a macrolide antibiotic (see
Spiramycin, Chapter 77), has been some-
what effective in treating, but not curing,
chronic cryptosporidio6is in people with
AIDS.Z'22 Results of treating infected infants
have been less encouraging."" The recom-
mended dose for people is 30 mg/kg, given
orally every 12 hours for 1 to 6 weeks. It is
not currently licensed for use in the United
States; use in animals is limited, and estab-
lished doses are not available. Clindamycin
was not effective in reducing oocyst num-
bers excreted in the feces of an infected
dog.13
PUBLIC HEALTH
-• CONSIDERATIONS
Figure 88-5. Crypiosporidium (arrows) in intestine
from an infected calf is characteristically located at the Cryptosporidial infecd'Qin s
microvillous border( H and E: x 250). no recognize unti 1976. Since that time,
1
852 PROTOZOAL AND OTHER INFECTIONS
lt �en diagnnsP� �yith inrreac;n� 4. Current WL, Reese NC, Ernst JV, et at: Human
qua Animal handlers, medical person- cryptosporidiosis in immunocompetent and im-
nel, people living or traveling in developing munodeficient persons. N Eng1 J Med 3o8:1zs2-
P P g g � P� g 1257, 1983.
countries, and children in day-care facilities 5. Bennett M, Baxby D. Blundell N, et al: Cryptospo-
have the highest risk of exposure." Between ridiosis in the domestic cat. Vet Rec 116:73-74.
4% to 7% of human patients admitted to 1985.
hospitals for gastroenteritis had cryptospo- 6. Poonacha KB, Pippin C: Intestinal cryptosporidio-
sis in a cat. Vet Pathol 19:708-710, 1982.
ridiosis.2+2s In both reports, infections were 7. Greene CE. Prestwood AK: Coccidial infections. In
more common during the warm, humid Greene CE Jed): Clinical Microbiology and Infec-
months. a outbreaks of epizootic tious Diseases of the Dog and Cat. Philadelphia,
WB Saunders Co, 1984, pp 824-858.
roportions hav been escrt a in Texas 8. Monticello TM, Levy MG, Bunch SE, et al: Cryp-
t an eo There are numerous reports, tosporidiosis in a feline leukemia virus-positive
published and unpublished, of cryptospo- cat.J Am Vet Med Assoc 191:705-706, 1987.
ridiosis among veterinary students who have 9. Wilson RB. Holscher MA, Lyles SJ: Cryptosporidi-
had contact with calves with diarrhea. osis in a pup.J Am vet Med Assoc 183:1005-1006,
Calves with diarrhea must be considered a 1983.
10. Sisk DB,Gasser HS,Styer EL:Intestinal cryptospo-
potential source of cryptosporidia for human ridiosis in two pups.J Am Vet Med Assoc 184:835-
infection. Intestinal cryptosporidiosis and 836, 1984.
diarrhea developed in a child receiving che- 11. .Kukushima K, Heiman RG: Cryptosporidiosis in a
pup with distemper. Vet Pathol 21:247-248, 1984.
motherapy for leukemia.s.ze The child's kit- 12. Turnwald GH, Barta O, Taylor HW, et al: Crypto-
ten was found to be nonsymptomatically sporidiosis associated with immunosuppression at-
infected and shedding oocysts in its stool. tributable to distemper in a pup. J Am Vet Med
An infected dog was the presumed source .Assoc 192:79-81, 1988.
of infection for a veterinary student." Most 13. Greene CE, Jacobs GJ, Prickett D: Intestinal malab-
i serious cryptosporidiosis occurs in patients sorption and cryptosporidiosis in an adult dog. J
Am Vet Med Assoc. In press, 1990.
with AIDS, and in these persons the prog- 14. Jokipii L,Jokipii A:Timing of symptoms and oocyst
t nosis usually is grave. excretion in human cryptosporidiosis.N Engl J Med
Cryp::: dial agents are resistant to 315:1643-1647, 1986.
commercial bleach (5.25% sodium hypo-_ 15. Wolfson JS, Richter JM, Waldron MA, et al: Cryp-
tosporidiosis in immunocompetent patients.N Engl
C
J Med 312:1278-1282, 1985.
ing water probablyhas 16. Zar F. Geiseler PJ, Brown VA: Asymptomatic car•
via f ity. Of the Commonly used disinfec- riage of Cryptosporidium in the stool of a patient
tants, only formol saline (10% solution) and With acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J In-
ammonia (5% solution) were effective in feet Dis 151:195. 1985.
17, Pohjola S,Jokipii L,Jokipii A:Dimethylsulphoxide-
destroying the viability of cryptosporidia) Ziehl-Nielsen staining technique for detection of
oocysts. However, ( oc StS had to be in con- cryptosporidiat oocysts. Vet Rec 115:442-443,
tact with the jsin�for 18 ours. More 1984,
concentrated (50%) ammonia solutions have 17a. Rusnak J, Hadfield TL, Rhodes MM, et al: Detec-
tion of Cryptosporidium oocysts in human fecal
been effective after 30 minutes.27 Moist heat specimens by an indirect immunofluorescence as-
(steam or pasteurization [>55°C]), freezing say with monoclonal antibodies. J Clin Microbic]
and thawing, or thorough drying are more 27:1135-1136, 1989.
practical means of disinfection.23-1"Excellent 17b. Ungar B, Quinn C: Enzyme immunoassay for the
sanitation and liberal use of boiling water detection of Cryptosporidium in fecal specimens.
29th Intersci Conf Antimicrob Agents Chemother,
for scalding food and water bowls should Houston, September, 1989, p 262. (Abstr).
minimize contamination in a clinical envi- 18, Current WL, Long PL: Development of human and
ronment. calf Cryptosporidium in chicken embryos. J Infect
Dis 148:1108-1113, 1983.
19. Latimer KS,Goodwin M:Rapid cytologic diagnosis
References of respiratory cryptosporidiosis in chickens.Avian
Dis 32:826-830, 1988.
20. Moore JA. Blagburn BL, Lindsay DS:Cryptosporid-
1. Fayer R, Ungar BLP: Cryptosporidium and crypto- iosis in animals,including humans.Compend Cant
sporidiosis. Microbial Rev 50:458-483, 1986.
Educ Pract Vet 10:275-287, 1988.
l 2. Kirkpatrick CE,Farrell JP:Cryptosporidiosis.Com- 21. Portnoy D, Whiteside ME, Buckley E. et al: Treat-
pend Cant Educ Pract Vet 6:5154-5165, 1984. ment of intestinal cryptosporidiosis with spiramy-
2a. Current WL: The biology of Cryptosporidium. cin. Ann Intern Med 101:202-204, 1984.
j ASM News 54:605-612, 1988. 22. Centers for Disease Control: Update: treatment of
I 3. Iseki M: Cryptosporidium felis sp n (Protozoa: Ei- cryptosporidiosis in patients with acquired immu-
meriina) from the domestic cat. Jpn J Parasitol nodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). MMWR 33:117-
28:285-307. 1986. 119, 1984.
CANINE BRUCELLOSIS
52 Leland E. Carmichael
Craig E. Greene
ETIOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY occurs by several routes. Infected female
dogs apparently transmit B. canis only dur-
Brucella canis is a small (1.0 to 1.5 µm), ing estrus, at breeding, or following abortion
gram-negative coccobacillary organism. How- through oronasal contact with vaginal dis-
ever, its rough colonial morphology and dif- charges. Oronasal transmission via aerosols
ferences in biochemical and antigenic reac- is most common by contact with aborted
lions make it distinct from other members materials because they contain up to 107'
of the genus Brucella. Unlike the smooth organisms/ml. Shedding of B. canis may oc-
Brucella organisms that infect several do- cur for periods up to 6 weeks following an
mestic animal species, B. canis has a limited abortion. Milk of infected bitches contains
host range; only dogs and wild Canidae have lower concentrations of organisms and is
been found to be susceptible. Cats can be less important in transmitting infection to
infected experimentally but are relatively surviving pups; most have already been in-
resistant, having a transient bacteremia. Rab- fected in utero.
bits and nonhuman primates also have been Seminal fluid and ur'1 1 a e�^Q^ +ke
found to be susceptible to experimental in-
P P inatar{ ac snurrac of infPrt;�n �r ,, �lPrina�c
fections. No other animal species has devel- that harbor the organisms in their prostates
oped significant agglutination titers. Human and epididymides. The rate of isolation of
cases have been reported as a result of lab- B. conis from the semen of infected dogs is
oratory accidents and contact with infected usually high for the first 6 to 8 weeks post-
dogs, but people appear to be relatively re inoculation (PI). Intermittent shedding of the
sistant (see Public Health Considerations). organism in low numbers has been noted for
D as also are susceptible to infecti n with up to 60 weeks PI° and may continue for a
B. abortus. Natura in ection is thought to period of at least 2 years. Uri n
occur following ingestion of contaminated begins after the onset of bacter-
placentas and aborted fetuses. They usually emia and continues for at least 3 months.
harbor the organism in the lymph nodes of Concentrations of 10' to 10' organisms/ml of
the GI tract for extended periods. Dogs are urine have been found in male dogs, with
not thought to be important in the spread lesser numbers of bacteria in the urine of
and maintenance of infection. females.23 The urine of infected males was
B. canis infects a susceptible host by pen- thought earlier to contain too few organisms
etrating the mucous membranes, especially to be infectious by the oronasal route; how-
those of the oral cavity, vagina, and con- ever, recent studies have demonstrated that
junctiva. The minimum oral infectious dose B. conis can be transmitted from infected to
for dogs is about 101 bacteria,' and the con- uninfected mature male dogs after several
junctival dose is 101 to 10' organisms.' Be- weeks or months of close contact.1.3 The
cause they contain the highest concentration propensity of males to shed the organism in
of organisms, vaginal discharges, semen, or the urine probably relates to its localization
possibly urine are the most likely sources in the prostate and epididymis, which are
for infection by mucosal contamination. in close association with the urinary blad-
Natural transmission of canine brucellosis der.
573
CANINE BRUCELLOSIS 583
Table 52-2. Recommended Therapy for Canine Brucellosis,
DOSE° INTERVAL DURATION
DRUG (mg/kg) ROUTE (hours) (weeks)
Nlinocycline` " 25 PO 24 2
12.5 PO 12 2
and
Dihydrostreptomycin 5 IIv1,SC 12 1
or
Gentamicin 2 1M.SC 12 1
Tetracycline" 22 PO 8 4
and
Dihydrostreptomycin' 5 IM,SC 12 Week 1,
Week 4
Repositol tetracycline`" 20 IN1 1 wk 4
and
Dihydrostreptomycin 15 IM,SC 12 1
'Repeating regimens one to two times after 1- to 4-week lapse may improve therapeutic efficacy. PO = oral.
IM = intramuscular, SC = subcutaneous
'Dose per administration at specified interval,expressed as mg/kg unless otherwise stated.
`Generic doxycycline may be substituted at the same dose and a lower cost.
°AmpicillinS° (20 mg/kg, every 8 hours, for 3 weeks) has been added to this regimen with little apparent
improvement in efficacy. Gentamicin may be substituted at 2 mg/kg.
'Pain and discomfort are common at the sites of injection. Sometimes easiest treatment program for kennels.
'Gentamicin may be substituted at 2 mg/kg.
1
or working dogs they should be neutered was recognized. More than 35 natural and
and moved to separate housing, because laboratory-acquired infections have been re-
mere physical separation of infected dogs ported.""' Contact with aborting bitches
from the other animals and preventive hy- was the source of infection for the majority
aiene has not proved rewarding.' of infected pet owners, whereas some male
Carrier dogs are important in maintaining dogs and undetermined sources were pre-
B. canis in the dog population since its sent in the other cases.
survival outside the host is short-lived. Un- People are relatively resistant to infection
fortunately, studies of environmental sur- with B. canis, and the disease is relatively
vival of B. canis have not been reported. mild compared with infections caused by
However, disinfection with quaternary am- other Brucella. A proportion of cases are
monium compounds or iodophors has been asymptomatic, as determined by serotesting,
effective in killing the bacterium. but the overall incidence of infection is low.
Fever, chills, fatigue, malaise, lymphade-
PREVENTION nopathy, and weight loss have been present
Preventive measures are particularly im- in symptomatic patients. Rare complications
portant in large breeding kennels or wher- include endocarditis, meningitis, arthritis,
ever large numbers of dogs are kept, but hepatitis, and visceral abscesses. Diagnosis
there are no legally mandated control meas- of human infections should include bacte-
ures, and canine brucellosis is not a report- riologic examination by blood culture and
able disease. There is no vaccine, and results serologic evaluation. Human antibodies to
of experimental studies have been unsatis- B. canis will react with the antigen used in
factory. The desirability of a vaccine is ques- the ME-RSAT and, as in dogs, they do not
tionable, especially when diagnostic testing cross-react with B. abortus antigen used in
P Y g g
is available, since an effective vaccine would routine testing for human brucellosis. Titers
be required to provide serviceable immunity of 1:200 or more when using the ME-TAT
but not confound the serodiagnosis. are seen in most active cases. Human infec-
tions can be readily and effectively treated
PUBLIC HEALTH with tetracycline therapy. As with infected
CONSIDERATIONS dogs, people have suffered relapse on am-
picillin.
Cases of human infection caused by B. Clients should always be informed of the
canis were reported soon after the disease potential health hazard in keeping B. canis—
172 Rift Valleyfever Ring wofnr 173
Animals, Liver lesions predominate, with areas of ro Ringworm
i r s. Widespread haemorrhages occur.
(Derrna[ophytosis, dermatomycosis, Linea, trichophytosis, of, o
< microsporosis] 0
Sp cial investigations
Hu ns. Isolate virus from the blood. Ser ogical tests A fungal skin disease acquired by contact with infectious `D
includ the neutralization test. humans or animals. It occurs worldwide.
In zoonotic ringworm the pathogens include various f1.�
i Animals. isolate virus in mice or tissue lture. species of Trichophytcn and Microsporum, mainly m
T. mentagrophyles, T. verrucosum and M. canis (pa(ho-
Prognosis 1
genic fungi).
' Humans. T re may be high mort ity in epidemics. Ins
i survivors conv escence is prolong ut usually complete. Reservoir and mode of transrnlssfon 3T
r There may be pe manent damage t the eye. Trichophyton infection in humans is acquired from horses <
and cattle, Microsporum infection from dogs. Fungal 3
Animals. Mortali is general low in animals, but the spores remain viable for long periods on carrier animals,
disease is highly fata in newbo n lambs. harness, tackle, etc. Transmission occurs by contact with
t animals. Person-to-person transmission is rare. Animals
Prevention serve as reservoirs of infection, generating spores which
Humans. Control mo q itoes. Dispose of infected ani- contaminate the environment.
f mats effectively. Apply rict laboratory safety procedures
and vaccinate[aborato aff. Incubation period
Humans. 4-14 days.
t } Animals. Remove ock fr m the mosquito environment,
or bring it into stab es. Animals. 1-4 weeks.
I
! Treatment Clinical features
l Humans. Sy ptomatic therap Humans. Ring-shaped, scaly and crusty skin lesions
] spread on the scalp(with loss of hair), or other parts of the
Animals. one. body.
Vaccina on Animals. Lesions are common in housed cattle and
j Humans Formoi inactivated vaccine has been used for calves. They appear as grey-white plaques on the head and
veterin ians and laboratory workers in a zootic areas. neck and gradually enlarge.
ti Ani als. Recommended in enzootic areas. Pathology
t
t istatfon Humans and animals. Varying severity of dermatitis
f i occurs with local loss of hair. The fungal hyphae grow in
umans. In some countries the disease is no 'fiable spe the stratum corneum and must keep pace with the rate of
( 1 ifically, and as acute encephalitis in other countries skin growth to induce a lesion. Deeper invasion produces a
i+ including the UK, the USA and New Zealand.
mild inflammatory reaction which increases in severity with
Animals. None, the development of hypersensitivity.
f.
t. p�
r '
174 Ringworm Rocio viral encephalitis 175/ ,•�
p Special investigations Rocio viral encephalitis
�Hstmons. Identify the organism in skin scrapings. i
01
t . Animals. Microscopically examine scrapings from the An epidemic viral encephalitis which occurs ' localized , ',� 'Y.
' . edge of a lesion for fungal spores after clearing with potas- parts of Braze It affects mainly outdoor rkers and is ,�'!.'�;'`
slum or sodium hydroxide. Identify species of fungus by transmitted by osquitoes from wild bird
} culture. Examine cats, which often show no lesions, under The causative agent is the Rocio A s (Togaviridae).
an ultraviolet light fitted with a Wood's filter to reveal There is no vaccin
infection by Jvlicrosporum, many spectres of which .;.
f fluoresce. Reservoir and rn e of transmi alon �" •''
Serological evidence exists of a eservoir in wild birds. ''
r 3
Prognosis Transmission is presu ed to be mosquito bites. Person- fir D.
r Humans. Chronic benign infection is usual, which may to-person transmission oes no appear to occur. The virus R`
y.
become secondarily infected, poses a serious hazard to bo tory workers. . t�
�, ♦ 3
Animals. Although prolonged this is a non-fatal self- Incubation period
limiting skin disease. Humans. 1-2 weeks.
r .
Prevention Animals. Unknown.
Humans. Avoid direct contact with infected animals and Clinical features
wash hands after contact.Treat early to prevent person-to-person spread. Humans. Fever has a udden onset, with malaise, head-
ache and neck stiifn Neurologica symptoms include
aP, confusion and cerebell r motor dysfun on.
� Animals. Give farm animals adequate nourishment and
it sunlight. Vaccinate, isolate and treat all affected animals, Animals. Unknow .
disinfect grooming tools and equipment using formal-
dehyde and buildings using sodium hydroxide. Pathology
aI' j Humans. Focal h emorrhages occur in th brain stem
14 Treatment and cerebellum.
1 Humans. Oral griseofulvin; topical antifungal agents.
Animals. Unkn n.
Animals. Oral griseofulvin for severe,extensive lesions.
Speciallnvesti atlons
Vaccination Humans. Isola a virus from the brain at post mo em.
humans. None. Serological tes include haemaggiutination inhibiti ,
j complement fix tion and neutralization tests.
Animals. Immunization of farm animals using a live
spore vaccine is successfully practised in some European Animals. No e.
countries.
i
Prognosis
Legislation Humans. he case fatality rate is about 5 per cent. Resid-
1}i Humans and animals. None. ual neuroto ical defects are common.
f! l96 Strongyloidiasis Swine vesicular disease 197 •
s� F.
trongyloidiasis Animals. Alopecia and bronchopneuronia occur, fol-
lowed by dehydration,anaemia and sometimes death. rr 0
[Strongyloidosisj
A chronic roundworm infection transmitted by d Le AmL- special investigations
w.
tact wit sees. It occurs worldwide,in warm,wet regions. Humans and animals. Examine fresh faeces for motile ♦ �•
The causative agents are Strongyloidesstercoralis and S. larvae (S. stercoralis) or embryonated eggs (S.
r fuelleborni(Nematoda). There is no vaccine fuelleborni). f`�
-A r
Reservoir and mods of transmission Prognosis
Reservoir hosts of S. stercoralis are ducks d, oy.�,and cats, Humans. Chronic infection may persist for years, even ,73
and of S. fuelleborni non-human primates. Humans are after moving from an endemic area, owing to autoinfec-
infected by skin penetration of larvae. These are then tion. The hyperinfection syndrome and disseminated infec-
1' carried by the blood to the lungs and thence up the trachea tion may prove fatal.
to the alimentary tract. Eggs are shed in the faeces which
develop into larvae in soil, thus completing the cycle.
Animals. Subclinical or self-limiting disease usually
i' Autoinfection can occur. occurs, in dogs and cats. It is rarely fatal.
Incubation Period prevention
Humans. 2-4 weeks. Humans. prevent exposure b rZwearinQ sh�e5. Dispose of
Animals. Subclinica! except in young dogs and cats. faeces with roper sanita c Use good personal hygiene
I I to prevent autotn ectton through perianal skin.
i Clinical features
Humans. Skin inflammation and pruritis at the site of Animals. Ensure proper sewage disposal. Provide clean,
l dry housing for domestic animals.
penetration of larvae may be followed by fever, cough,
haemoplysis, mucoid diarrhoea and abdominal pain.
Malabsorption and gastrointestinal bleeding are possible. Treatment
Hyperinfection and disseminated formsof larval migration Humans. Thiabendazole and ntebendazole.
i give severe symptoms.
� Animals_ Thiabendazole is the drug of choice.
i! Animals. Young dugs and cats have thin skins which
allow massive infection to penetrate, giving severe Legislation
�I
dermatitis, inappetence, coughing and even broncho Humans and animals. [None.
j pneumonia. Vomiting occurs. as does severe dermatitis
({3 during the period of larval penetration. ine vesicular disease
[t
i Pathology A trans[ viral disetl gs causing vesicular lesions
I t Humans. Small papules occur where larvae penetrate around them nd feet. Its main importance is the pos-
;;
I}S the skin. Pneumonitis and bronchopneumonia can occur. sibility of ifusion of and mouth disease. Human
#r� Intestinal infection produces Enteritis leading to ulceration. infecti rarely results from o ational exposure.
tl�
Dead and dying aberrant larvae can induce foci of infkam- A apparently new disease spreadin idly throughout
tl; mation throughout the body,and eosinophilia. tit world, it was first isolated in ltaly, then i ng Kong,
o �
r
' 184 Scabies
�, • Schislosomiasis 185
Pathology to dry, or tetraethylthiuram monosufphide or carbarol
Humans. The mite tunnels in the epidermis. Intense irri- applied as a wash. Oral medications are also available fur tation leads to scratching, spread of infection and possibly small animals and ivermectin for cattle as a subcutaneous
purulent secondary infection. injection.
W
Animals. The tunnelling mites induce allergic sensitiza- Legislation
g e9
I Lion with vesicle formation. The skin thickens and there is Humans. The disease is notifiable in some European �
loss of hair.
countries. C4
i= Special investigations ', Animals. The disease is notifiable, with compulsory
} Humans and animals. Examine deep skin scrapings treatment insheep, horses and cattle, in many countries.
i !. microscopicalIy for mites after clearing with potassium or _
sodium hydroxide. chlStoSo D Q1118SIS
Prognosis Bi arzia, bilharziasisl Y.
l
Humans. The disease responds well to treatment� . p A syst mic water-borne flatworm infection which can i ad
'
i but repeated infection is likely in crowded, unhygienic to liver ilure and neurological damage,
i conditions. The cau, live agents are Schistosoma species, in uding
.0
4 Shislosoma ansoni and S. hoemat' obium fo which ` r Animals. Although a non fatal skin disease, it can prove humans are t reservoir; and S.
1 intractable to treatment in dogs. 1ap0nicu which is ti-
g zoonotic(Tremat a). There is no vaccine.
S. mansoni occur, in Africa, South Arn ica and some
Prevention Caribbean isiands; S. emalobium in Af tea and the Mid-
Humans. Prompt treatment is necessary. Isolate infected die East;and S,japonica in China J -
persons. Disinfect clothes and beddin a n,the Philippines
g and South East Asia.
Animals. Give adequate nutrition and good hygiene. Reservoir and rnode of flan
ssion
- -
Treat sows three times at weekly intervals before farrowing ! S. japonicum infects cattle, w r buffalo, horses, dogs,
to prevent infection of the newborn.Quarantine or prohibit cats, rodents and monkeys (S ow and S. mattheii: sheep ` tit imports of live animals from affected countries. and cattle)_ Intermediate asts a e g. species of snails
{ ' ( iomphalaria and Buli s). Cercan a in contaminates �' ,=.: •_
I i, Treatment water penetra(e human s in,especially i irrigated fields or 'Humans. Use topical applications of benzene hexa- rivers. In the body the arasite migrates 'a the liver to the
chloride, benzyl benzoate or monosulfiram. Bath and wear superior mesenteric in where rnaturatio takes place in - *'� .clean clothes regularly. '
g Y• I about six weeks. ¢:: -•:.
' � gg are disseminated i roughoul the
body via the bloo , released into the intestin I lumen and
fit Animals. Thoroughly soak the skin of all animals in an excreted, In w er miracidia developand
u affected group with insecticide p etrate the
P (e.g. lindane ora<; i snail, which i urn excretes cercariae into thew er.
};(� organophosphates) applied as a wash, dip or spray, ands=ter;.
Ill! repeat on two or three occasions at intervals of 10-14 days. IncubeNo period
i: Disinfect or rest buildings for three weeks. In small animals Humans_ S. japonicum incubates for 4-6 weeks p for to
x- :-.-
`�i benzyl benzoate may be painted on the lesions and allowed acute sy ptoms.
t'It
204 Toxocariasis Toxoplasmosis/Congenital roxopiasrriosis 205 ,
u, I> migrate to the intestines via the lungs and complete their i Animals. Examine faeces for eggs.
i maturation. Dormant larvae in adults reactivate during "
.6.
g i : pregnancy and migrate to the placenta and mature in ; Pragnosle r ; c
puppies, or may infect puppies via milk. Larvae excreted in i Humans. The condition is usually benign. The ocular %D`i'
'= faeces by puppies may mature in the bitch once ingested. form can cause severe and progressive eye disease, even r
Humans are infected when eggs from contaminated soil, ' leading to blindness. The visceral form rarely causes CNS
grass, etc., are ingested. Children with pica are at greatest and heart involvement, which may be fatal.
ti risk. I c y ,. -A "'
Animals. It is benign in dogs and cats unless they become �•.+� t f
Incubation period massively infected.-
Humans. Weeks or months. 3
Prevention
i Animals. Eggs require 15 days to become infective. c Humans. Teach children good hygiene and prevent access ` "'. c,
Worms mature three weeks after infection. to dog faeces. Keep dogs away from children's play areas. 3�
Cover sand-pits when not in use. Clean up faeces when
Clinical features f exercising dogs in public_parks.
1; Humans. Infection is usually subelinical. Visceral larva t
9; migrans affects children 1-4 years of age who may develop Animals. Worm all dogs regularly.
fever, asthmatic attacks, acute bronehiolitis, pneumonitis,
nausea and vomiting, enlarged liver, spleen and lymph Treatment
nodes, and possibly heart and CNS involvement. Ocular Humans. Diethylcarbamazine and thiabendazole are
larva migrans usually affects older children in whom granu- effective.
It
nodules develop in the eye, with progressive to
of vision.
np Cezp� ,�.�.. Grp o Animals. Worm all bitches and puppies.
Animals. It is usually subclinicai, but massive prenatal I Legislation
infections can kill the puppies before 2-3 weeks of age. Humans and animals. [Pone.
# Pathology
Humans and animals. Larvae penetrate the mucosa of the ! TaxoplaslrnosislCongenital
i small intestine and migrate to the liver and other tissues via toxoplasrnosis
j blood vessels. Larvae bore through small vessels into sur-
rounding tissues, producing granulomata around larvae or A common and usually asymptomatic protozoal infection
the shed surface components. Retinochoroiditis and of humans. It occurs worldwide, but particularly in the
peripheral retinitis and endophthalmitis may occur. ! tropics. Congenital infection in humans can lead to serious
Eosinophilia is prominent and persistent. brain lesions.
The causative agent is Toxoplasma gondii (Protozoa).
_ Special investigations There is no vaccine.
< ' Humans. Serological tests include ELISA and indirect '
fluorescent antibody tests_ Demonstrate larvae in biopsy Reservoir and mode of transmission
J cats and wild felines of the genera Felis
�l tissue. Definitive frosts are
t� and Lynx. Cats are infected by eating raw meat, birds or
�k 14 m
:' 202 Thela2iasis Toxocariasis 203 1
Prevention Pathology
Humans. Avoid mosquito bites. Apply laboratory safety u
, Humans. There is possible scarring of the cornea in severe t?t
ao
procedures. cases. {' i <,
Animals. Protect laboratory monkeys from mosquito s. A ' als. There is mild to severe conjunctivi with
opaci and ulceration of the cornea in severe s. m;,
�;, Treatme t
Humans. Symptomatic therapy. Special i eatigations
Humans an animals. Examine the ntents of a con- t' ,
Animals. None. junctival sac fo the worms. n
Legislatto Prognosis
1;
Humans and nimals. None. Humans and anima Sym oms subside when worms
• are removed.
Thelazias s
Prevention
[Conjunctival sp rurosisl Humansandanima/s Ensu good personal hygiene,and t '
the eye. It occurs in
A painful round orm infection o control flies.
India, Burma,Chi a,the America and Australia. Treatment
The causative agents ar Thelazia ca!lipaedo,
T. ca(iJorniensls an T. rhodesi (Nematode). There is no Humans a animals. Surgically remo worms from the
conjunct' al sac.
vaccine.
Reservoir and mode f tr nsmisslon Legi etion
. Humans and animals. None.
Reservoirs are several s es of domestic and wild mam-
mals. The adult worm l dges in the conjunctivae. inter- TQXoeariasis
' mediate hoses include v r us species of flies. Flies ingest
_ the eggs and larvae by s eki g secretions from the corner of [Visceral larva migrans,larval granulomatosis, ocular larva
the eye. These lary dev op in stages and eventually migrans[
�3 migrate to the prob scis whe a A common roundworm on �
they are released when the infection d
11' fly again feeds on ular secre 'ons. �� and cats,
i; acquired by humans worldwide in childhood by ingesting
' incubation pe od eggs.Symptomatic disease is rare but occurs particularly in
€? Humans, Un ertain. children subject to pica.
l The causative agents are Toxocara canis and T. cali
i
Animals. nknown. (T. myslax)(Nernatoda).There is no vaccine.
j' C[Inlcal f atures Reservoir and mode of transirnission
!: Reservoir hosts are dos and cats, E �s excreted in faeces
Humans nd animals. The condition nsists of severe g
:l require a mart:ratiee:i cnil. Eggs hatch in the intes-
iti and pai ul conjunctivitis with lachrymati n.
++ tine and larvae penetrate the intestine wall to enter the
i; blood vessels. In puppies less than five weeks old, larvae
i
542 BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
should alert owners of the zoonotic impli- tance of exercising appropriate hygienic
cation of Campylobacter infection for other measures, especially when pets have diar-
household members and stress the impor- rhea.
Salmonellosis Craig E. Greene
ETIOLOGY ment. These Salmonella serotypes or indi-
vidual isolates of certain serotypes vary
Salmonella are primarily motile, non- widely in their ability to infect and produce
spore-forming, gram-negative bacilli of the disease within a given animal host,and more
family Enterobacteriaceae. Members of the virulent serotypes appear to be able to mul-
genus Salmonella are pathogens that infect tiply intracellularly. Mucoid and encapsu-
a wide variety of mammals, birds, reptiles, lated strains are more pathogenic than other
and even insects. Although they occur pri- strains; S. typhi, which produces prolonged
marily as intestinal parasites, they can cause and systemic infections in its human hosts,
systemic disease and can be isolated from is noted for these features. The species most
other organs and blood. Salm, n_nP_.Ilae are commonly isolated from diseased animals
found worldwide and have important public- and humans is S. typhimurium,
health i�,nliratiGAs, as they are capable of
causing mild to severe gastroenteritis in hu-
-Ma EPIDEMIOLOGY
The taxonomy of salmonellae has under-
gone many changes, with classification Source of Infection
schemes being based on both biochemical
and serologic differences. The species that Most serotypes of S. typhimurium are ;
are recognized to be of major pathogenic ubiquitous in nature and are readily trans-
significance in veterinary and human micro- mitted among animals, people, and the en-
biology include S. choleraesuis, S. arizonae vironment (Fig. 50-2). The most co on
(formerly Arizona arizonae), S. enteritidis, source of infection, whit occurs through
and S. typhimurium. S. typhi, which is ex- the route, is contact wit contai e
tremely important as the cause of typhoid food, water, or fomites. it orne transmis-
fever in people, is not normally pathogenic sion, w is pro uses respiratory infection,
for animals and is of little, if any, zoonotic may occur occasionally, as the organism is
importance. S. enteritidis has been further able to survive on dried airborne particles
divided into more than 1700 bioserotypes, in the absence of organic material.
each with a distinguishing name, such as S. Salmonellae can survive for relatively long
enteritidis dublin. It is common practice to -Periods outs Finding Salmn-
omit the species name in favor of using the nel]a in the_ environment usually indicatps
bioserotype alone, that is, S. dublin. direct or indirect fecal con n. A
Some species or serotypes of salmonellae large portion of the aquatic biosphere is now
show a preference for certain animal hosts, contaminated with Salmonella organisms,
and each domesticated farm animal species probably as a result of pollution of 4treamc
appears to have an adapted Salmonella and lakes with untreated sewage, garbage, or
species (horse—S. abortus equi, cow— other refuse. Fish and shellfish living in
S. dublin, sheep—S. abortus ovis, pig— previously infected waters are microbiologic
S. choleraesuis, fowl—S. pullorum and S. monitors, as they can harbor the organisms
gallinarum). Rarely, S. choleraesuis and S. in their digestive tracts for extended periods
dublin produce disease in humans or other after direct isolation from the water is no
animals. longer possible. D_oigs and cats may acquire
The remaining serotypes of Salmonella their infections by drin ang contaminate
show little or no specific host adaptation water, although this is less of a problem in
and are equally pathogenic for people and areas where pets drink from chlorinated mu-
other animals. Many have been isolated from nicipal water supplies.
vertebrates, invertebrates, and the environ- Another source of infection for dogs and
ENTERIC AND OTHER BACTERIAL INFECTIONS 543
Diseased
U
Susceptible
Contamination Carrier
Rodents
Subclinical disease
Food
Aquatic
contamination
•
Human
infection
Figure 50-2. Epidemiology of salmonellosis.
cats, as well as for their human owners, is a veterinary hospital. Salmonella can occa-
contamination of foodstuffs. This was a ma- sionally be transmitted by means of contam-
jor problem in the past because pets were inated pharmacologic or diagnostic prepa-
fed uncooked or unprocessed foods." Meat rations of animal origin, such as pancreatic
and meat by-products, especially those from extracts, liver extracts, bile salts, gelatin,
contaminated horsemeat, were the foods vitamins, and hormonal extracts Free-roam:
most commonly incriminated. Isolation of ing dos and cats have am le o ortu
Salmonella from infected animals has been _ or exposure 1-6-RaTm—onella because they a;e
most common from swine, cattle, turkeys, carnivorous and occasionally copropha ous.
and horses, in that order. S. typhimurium Cats may have more resistance to infection
was by far the most common isolate. Raw or than dogs, as suggested by the less frequent
improperly cooked cat food or dog food isolation of Salmonella from them.
products prepared from these sources have Infected animal handlers may also be a
a higher prevalence of contamination than source of Salmonella in a hospital, kennel,
pelleted and heat-processed foods, which or cattery."b Human infections with nonty-
are less likely to be infected because they phoid Salmonella are usually self-limiting,
are adequately sterilized during preparation. and shedding of the organism is usually not
Salmonella contamination of commercially a persistent problem. Animal infections are
processed foods poses a problem if these more important in maintaining the organism
foods are exposed to infected mammals, in animal holding facilities. Human carriers >:
birds, reptiles, amphibians, or insects or to chronically infected with typhoid fever-pro-
unsanitary conditions. Salmonella can mul- during salmonellae pose no health hazard
tiply quickly in moistened foodstuffs left at for animals.
room temperature. Supplementation of proc-
essed foods with uncooked food scraps or
meat by-products is another common source Prevalence
of infection.
Contaminated fomites such as food dishes, Salmonellosis in the dog and the cat is
holppital cages, endoscopic equipment, and more common Man a reva ence o c tni-
baffilubs can spread the disease throughout ca isease would suggest, with numerous
I
II
f
' 544 BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
serotypes being isolated from each species. The intestinal tract normally is protected
The frequency of fecal isolation from clini- against colonization by enteric pathogens,
cally healthy or hospitalized dogs is reported which explains why the clinical prevalence
6 to be 1% to 36%"33 and from normal cats is of gastroenteritis is lower than the frequency
f l 0% to 14%.11.35 The actual prevalence of of Salmonella isolation from the pet popu-
infection is probably higher than that esti- lation. Normal intestinal motility propels
mated on the basis of fecal swab culture ingested Salmonella to the cecum and colon.
results and routine isolation procedures, as There, the resident bacterial population pro- }
culture of intestinal lymph node specimens duces volatile fatty acids, including acetic
taken at necropsy yields a much higher prev- and butyric acids, which limit further rep-
alence of Salmonella organisms. lication of the pathogens. Thus, any factor
that alters the animal's indigenous microbial
population increases its susceptibility to in-
Host Resistance fection by Salmonella. Intestinal mucus by
itself is not bactericidal;however, it contains k
The ability to infect animals with Salmo- humoral and cellular immune factors that
4 nella experimentally and to establish clini- are important in protection against salmo-
i cal illness depends on many factors. Age is nellgsis.
an important variable. Puppies and kittens Antibiotic therapy both reduces resistance t
younger than 1 year of age are more suscep- to salmonellosis and prolongs the course of
tible to infection and clinical illness than the illness in experimental animals. A single
adult animals. Neonates may acquire infec- dose of penicillin or streptomycin greatly
tions from contaminated secretions of their increases the susceptibility of mice to sal-
dams. In utero transmission may result in monellosis by altering the normal intestinal
death and abortion of the fetuses or birth of microflora that protects the bowel against b
weak or ill puppies or kittens. colonization by enteric pathogens. Dogs de-
Nutritional considerations are also impor- de-
veloping salmonellosis in a hospital out-
- tant in the establishment of salmonellosis. break were at high risk if they had received
Obesity and overfeeding decrease the resis- antimicrobials, especially ampicillin.3 '
tance of experimentally infected dogs to sal-
. i monellosis. Dietary deficiencies of methio-
nine or choline in pregnant animals increase PATHOGENESIS
the susceptibility of their offspring to sal-
monellosis. Experimentally, a large number of organ-
Stress caused by hospitalization, anes- isms (W to 109) must be ingested to produce
thesia, surgical and medical therapy, and GI colonization by Salmonella, with or with-
overcrowding has been correlated with an out clinical illness.'° Because a large propor-
increased risk of salmonellosis in dogs and tion of ingested organisms are destroyed by I
cats.36 Thiamylal anesthesia enhanced the the low pH of the stomach, reducing the
virulence of Salmonella endotoxin for ex- amount of gastric acidity by administration
perimentally infected animals.37 of buffered compounds or performing vagot-
The impairment of host immune defenses omy or partial gastrectomy induces a greater
that occurs with malnutrition, malignancy, risk of salmonellosis in experimental ani-
-';t and glucocorticoid therapy may increase the mals. The organisms that survive passage
' prevalence of clinically severe salmonel- through the stomach are able to colonize the
losis. An increased postoperative prevalence middle portions of the ileum on the day of
of clinical salmonellosis in dogs given high- ingestion. Here they attach preferentially to
dosage glucocorticoid therapy for interver- the tips of villi, which they invade and in
tebral disc and intraocular surgery was which they multiply. Localization and per-
noted.38 Salmonellosis has also been re- sistence of the organisms in the intestinal
ported as a complication of anticancer che- epithelium and lymph nodes account for
motherapy in dogs with multicentric lym- shedding, which occurs for 3 to 6 weeks in
phosarcomas."The severity of salmonellosis most cases. The shedding is continual for
is increased in people with chronic or severe the first week but then becomes intermittent.
hemolytic anemia when the mononuclear Intestinal lymph nodes, liver, or spleen may
phagocyte system is overwhelmed by ery- harbor the organism persistently,even in the
throphagocytosis. absence of shedding. Reactivation of shed-
BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
548
ions are characteris- cillin, cepaported.
Histologically, the lesions hirin, or nitrofurans is rep
esponse of Salmonella to anti-
tic of a fibrinous to fibropurulent pneumo- The in vivo r
nia, multifocal necrotizing hepatitis, and biotics often correlates poorly with the re-
suppurative meningitis, all of which are as- suits of in vitro testing.
been advocated
with hemorrhagic ulcerative satiated w e gas- Antibiotic therapy has not ami- for treating uncomplicated Salmonella gas-
nation may reveal that bacteria
fl troenteritis. Histologic or cytologic exhave troenteritis' but, rather, has been recom-
disseminated to many organs, including the mended for animals with concurrent signs
bone marrow, spleen, and lymph nodes. of systemic infection or histories of immu-
nosuppression (see Table 3-3). Because Sal-
monella gastroenteritis is usually self-limit-
THERAPY ing, such treatment appears to prolong the
convalescent excretion period. However,
Appropriate therapy for canine and feline this widely held view has been questioned
salmonellosis varies according to the type in studies that demonstrate effective eradi-
cation of Salmonella from human typhoid
and severity of clinical illness. Acute Sal- combined antibiotic therapy.
monella gastroenteritis, without systemic carriers by comb
h signs, is best treated with parenteral poly-
Another inherent problem with routine
ionic isotonic fluids to replace losses from antibiotic administration for Salmonella gas-
vomitus and diarrhea. Fluids can be admin- troenteritis is that infecting organisms may
istered orally when vomiting is not a prob- acquire transferable (plasmid-mediated) re-
lem. Hypertonic glucose-containing solu- sistance (see Development of Antibacterial
tions have been effective in reversing fluid Resistance, Chapter 1). An increased preva-
loss in infectious diarrhea (see Chapter 9). lence of transferable resistance has been
Transfusion of plasma may be more benefi- demonstrated among Salmonella isolates
cial than fluid therapy when mucosal dis- from dogs, cats, and humans.'"' Other dis-
ruption and increased GI permeability lower advantages of routine antibiotic therapy for
albumin concentration to less than 2.0 g/dI. salmonellosis are that it may enhance sus-
Prostaglandin inhibitors such as indo- ceptibility to infection or activate clinical
methacin have been effective in reducing illness in the latent carrier state.
fluid losses in animals with experimentally Animals with more severe signs of endo-
induced Salmonella gastroenteritis.11 In- toxemia or bacterernia should be treated dif-
creased net water loss in the lower bowel ferently from those with simple gastroenter-
results from increased intestinal secretion itis. Plasma transfusions of at least 250 ral
induced by bacterial endotoxin and me- have reduced mortality in dogs given Sal-
diated through prostaglandin synthesis. monella endotoxin.53 Equal volumes of iso-
Prostaglandin inhibitors must be used early tonic fluid or smaller volumes of plasma
must be were not helpful. Plasma-treated dogs Bevel-
in the disease to be effective and oped leukopenia,thrombocytopenia,and ex-
used cautiously if GI hemorrhage is severe. tensive tissue injury, as did untreated dogs,
such as lactulose have been recomm
Paradoxically,osmotically active laxatives
ended but had better survival rates.
for treating acute Salmonella gastroenteritis.
A nonabsorbable sugar, lactulose produces PREVENTION
osmotic diarrhea through the formation of
acid metabolites in the distal small bowel
e and an Prevention of salmonellosis in dogs and,
and colon. Shortened transit time U t b cause of their tendency to
acid environment are deleterious to the sur- cats is dif 11
bc inica Carr r state r
Lion --------
d t bi cause 11"y
r 'e"
0' ' tendency r . r state is f��c s c ar
cats
e:velo a chronic in�ca
t
vival of Salmonella organisms. Such therapy evelo a chronic s hoid salmonellae
should be used only in cases in which fluid ate �, Nont p
deficits have already been corrected. that infect pets are also harbored by many
Antibiotics reported to be effective against other animals, making eradication difficult.
Salmonella include chloramphenicol, tri- Pets may come in contact with these animals
methoprim-sulfonamides, and amoxicillin." directly in their environments or indirectly
Aminoglycosides may be considered when through their food. Salmonellae are also well
bacterial resistance is anticipated, but the ada ted to survive—in—the environment ana
*
risk of renal toxicity precludes their use. resist common forms of disinfe gUgn—_
Variable resistance to erythromycin, ampi- Hygiene and strict isolation should be en-
to
86 TOXOPLASMOSIS A?qq
i
NEOSPOROSI
t{ J. P. Dube
Craig E. Green
Michael R. Lapp
t
Toxopl asm osis
ETIOLOGY generations, merozoites released from
D or E form male (micro) or female (macro
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracel- gamonts. The microgamont divides
lular coccidian parasite that infects virtually forms several biflagellate microgam&%'._
all species of warm-blooded animals,includ- which are released and swim to and pe
1 ing people. Domestic cats and other Felidae trate macrogamonts. A wall is fo
are the definitive hosts and all nonfeline around the fertilized macrogamont to f
! hosts are intermediate hosts. There are three an oocyst. Oocysts are round to oval, 12
infectious stages: sporozoites in oocysts, in- 10 µm, and are unsporulated (uninfectivil
vasive tachyzoites (actively multiplying when passed in feces. After exposure to a1
stage), and encysted bradyzoites (slowly and moisture, oocysts sporulate and coma 3
multiplying stage). Oocysts are excreted in two sporocysts, each with four sporozoiL
I; feces, whereas tachyzoites and bradyzoites Sporozoites are banana-shaped, app
{f are found in tissues. mately 8 x 2 µm, and can survive in%i�,
Three major ways of transmission are con- oocyst for many months even under har_u
j1 genital infection, ingestion of infected tis- environmental conditions.
1 sues, and ingestion of oocyst-contaminated The entire enteroe,pithelial (coccidian)
1 food or water (Fig. 86-1). Other minor cle of T. gondii can be completed within,
modes of transmission include infected milk days after ingestion of tissue cysts.Howev, r"
1 and transfusion of fluids or transplantation following ingestion of oocysts or tachyzoit�
of organs. the formation of oocysts is delayed untiFf
weeks or more, but differences in the 1
cycle that account for this delay are un_�
Enteroepithelial Life Cycle tain.
This cycle is found only in the definitive
feline host. Most cats become infected by Extraintestinal Life Cycle
i ingesting intermediate hosts infected with
tissue cysts. Bradyzoites are released from The extraintestinal development of T.gar,
the tissue cysts in the stomach and intestine dii is the same for all hosts, including d '
when the cyst wall is dissolved by digestive cats, and people,and is not dependent ug
r� enzymes. Bradyzoites penetrate the epithe- whether tissue cysts or oocysts are ingest"_
lial cells of small intestine and initiate the After the ingestion of oocysts, sporozot
five types (A to E) of predetermined asexual excyst in the lumen of the small intest;
stages (Fig. 86-2). These types, A to E, are and penetrate intestinal cells including C-�
equivalent to schizonts of other intestinal cells in the lamina propria. Sporozoites,W
coccidia. After an undetermined number of vide into two by an asexual process knoe,
1 818
1
tY
A^
4
ENTERIC AND OTHER BACTERIAL INFECTIONS 549
forced during hospitalization because of the exposed and then act as sources of salmo-
highly infectious and contagious nature of nellae.
the disease. Infection from food sources can
be minimized by using commercially avail-
able heat-processed products. Proper sani- PUBLIC HEALTH
tation during handling and storing of proc- CONSIDERATIONS
essed foods is also important, as they
frequently become contaminated by contact Salmonellosis is a disease of maior zoo-
with utensils, rodents, or insects. notic ilnnartanca Considerable emphasis
Cages in hospitals, kennels, or catteries ai`F�een placed on foodborne outbreaks in
should be routinely cleaned and disinfected humans by means of contaminated products
between uses by different animals (see Chap- of animal origin. Sporadic, pet-associated j
ter 1). Phenolic compounds or household infections have not receive as much atten-
bleach (diluted 1:32 or 4 oz/gal of water) can tion. Hogs ave h en r=sayeci as imnnr-
be used as surface disinfectants. Animals tant vectors for nonfoodborne infections be-
brought into group confinement should be cause of thei_r�hahits of xQDx2ahagy and
segregated if they have or develop diarrhea ingesting carrion, couplledwith their tnna-
or vomiting. Food dishes and utensils term shedding of org
should be cold disinfected or, preferably, proximity to people. Dogs and horses have
autoclaved between uses. Using disposable the greatest zoonotic potential for the occu-
dishes will eliminate this requirement. En- pationally exposed." Contact with feces
doscopic equipment, shown to be a source from infected ets has een an 1
of infection in human hospitals, should also u important j
be properly disinfected, that is, immersed in c i ren. Cats, proved to be important but !!
ethylene oxide gas, glutaraldehyde (2%), or les�requently infected reservoirs,have been
formalin (20%) for a minimum of 1 hour. shown to shed organisms orally, conjuncts- .
The equipment must be thoroughly aerated vally, and fecally. Thus, they may contami-
or rinsed before use (see Chapter 1). nate their food, fur, or water source any of
Cats and dogs may shed organisms from which may serve as a source of infection for
their oral cavities or in their feces. Contain- � pans. }
inated fur is a ready source of infection for Of increasing concern is the frequency
animal handlers or pet owners. Therefore, with which antibiotic-resistant Salmonella
proper disinfection of hands and clothing strains have been isolated from dogs and
after handling animals is important. Human cats.36 Most of the resistance is plasmid-
carriers of nontyphoid Salmonella may mediated and is intensified by'indiscrimi-
transmit the infection as a reverse zoonosis, nate or frequent use of antibiotics by vet-
and this possibility should not be over- erinarians. Antibiotic resistance has made
looked if there is a recurrent problem with recentl acquired salmonell i more i -
salmonellosis in an animal holding facility. cut to treat in peop e. Salmonella infections
Long-term boarders or blood donors should have been more frequent and severe in peo-
not be housed with the transient hospital ple infected with human immunodeficiency
population because the former may become virus.S4
)
Shigellosis reene
ETIOLO erogroups: dysenteriae, S. flexneri,
S. boydii, and S. onnei. Each group is fur-
Shigella is a genus of no a am- ther divided into a number of subserotypes
negative bacteria, mor gically in 1 ' that vary in path genicity. Shigellae are not
1 guishable fro er enterobacteria, hat a, �vironmental y resistant as salmonellae;
cause rr eal condition known as b cil- they canTre ury ve a temperature of 55°C
la r ysentery in people and nonhuman ri- for longer than our, and they are de-
mates.S5 On the basis of biochemical nd stroyed by dilute (1 o phenol within 30
serologic properties, they are divided nto minutes.They are usceptible to inactivation
1
9
_ yt
' 4
i 828 PROTOZOAL AND OTHER INFECTION '
a Oocyst Shedding in Cats 100%) in warm, moist, or tropical climates
` and lowest in arid and frigid regions of the
11 This has been partially controlled only world." The rate of congenital infection var-
when high dosages of pyrimethamine and ies among countries, being higher in Conti
sulfonamide have been used (see Table 86— nental Europe and South America than in
} 1). Oocyst excretion also has been reduced North America." In the United States, prev-
by the dosages of clindamycin recom- alence is highest in the East and in the
mended for systemic chemotherapy. Appalachian mountain regions and is lowest
} Monensin, an anticoccidial drug used in in the arid Southwest and northwestern
poultry and cattle feeds, is effective in sup- mountain regions. Approximately 250o to
�i pressing oocyst shedding when placed in 50% of people tested in the United States
dry cat food within 1 to 2 days PI." Its use have antibodies to Toxoplasma."
did not prevent infected cats from develop- Clinical disease in people is similar to that
ing immunity against shedding of oocysts in seen in infected intermediate hosts, such as
subsequent exposure to Toxoplasma. Tox- dogs. Retinochoroiditis is the primary clini-
E' icity was not noted when the drug was fed cal disease in congenitally infected children.
for extended periods, despite its known ten- Prenatal detection of fetal infection and
dency to produce a myopathy in dogs and treatment of the pregnant mother has greatly
horses.411 Toltrazuril has been highly effec- reduced the morbidity of disease in newborn
tive when given on a daily basis in prevent- infants.14
ing ooc st shedding following infection or
Postnatally
acquired
uired infections are Qener-
reshedding after glucocorticoid-induced im- ally asymptomatic and self-limiting, usually
munosuppression.i1a Use of these drugs may persisting for 1 to 12 weeks. Such infections
be beneficial in treating cats owned by preg- with persistent or recurrent lymphadenopa-
nant women, to reduce the risk of potential thy may resemble infectious mononucleosis
exposure of the fetus to oocysts. or Hodgkin's disease and usually are not
fatal unless the host is severely immunosup-
pressed and the infection becomes dissemi-
PREVENTION
nated. Reactivation of chronic latent (en-
cysted) infection also is possible and has
been seen in AIDS patients when Toxo-
Preventing toxoplasmosis in dogs and cats plasma encephalitis is the predominant ill-
involves measures intended to reduce the ",41
incidence of feline infections and subse- ness.
quent shedding of oocysts into the environ- Oocyst survival is an important determi-
ment. Cats preferably should be fed only dry nant of the distribution and maintenance of
G the disease in nature. Oocysts, which are
or canned, commercially processed cat
shed by cats, contaminate the environment
foods. The prevalence of canine and feline
toxoplasmosis has een ig er in countries and are ingested by herbivorous animals,
w ere raw meat products ar fed to ets. who subsequently infect carnivorous ani-
nnGz ?yn Pr _� nu be restricted from mals higher in the food chain, such as hu-
hunting and eating otentia-T intermediate mans. People became infected by ingesting
os s or mec anica vectors, such as cock- infected meat (usually pork, goat, or lamb).
roaches, earthworms, and rodents. If meat is Ingestion of raw goat's milk may be an ad-
fed, it should always be thoroughly cooked, ditional source of human toxoplasmosis.
prior to feeding. should Although oocysts are key in the epide-
even if frozen
p g miology of toxoplasmosis, there is no corre-
be prevented from entering buildings where
lation between toxoplasmosis and cat own-
food-producing animals are housed or feed
f storage areas. ership. Most cats become infected from
carnivorism soon after weaning and shed
PUBLIC HEALTH Table 86-2. Effects of Temperature on
CONSIDERATIONS Toxoplasma Oocyst Sporulation
* •: TEMPERATURE DAYS
Worldwide, nearly 500 million people 23.8°C(75°F) 1-3
have T. gondii antibodies. The seropreva- 11 C (59o81Fj 2 8
{{� lence of T. gondii is highest (approaching
` 't'OXOPLASNIOSIS AND NEOSPOROSIS &29
I '�y
oocysts for only short periods thereafter.14 86-3). Sporulated ooc sts n '
Cats found to be shedding T. gondii oocysts soil for 18 mont s or more. esppr v if theyi
should be hospitalized and treated to elimi- are coveredan out of direct sunlight. A t v
nate shedding, particularly when a pregnant cats natural instinct to bury or hide its
woman is present in the household. There- feces provides the protected environment
fore, to prevent inadvertent environmental for oocyst survival. Children's sandboxes
contamination, cat owners should practice should be covered to prevent cats from def-
proper hygienic measures on a routine basis. ecating in them. Mechanical vectors, such .}
Since infected cats rarely have diarrhea and as sowbugs, earthworms, and houseflies, '
since they groom themselves regularly, di- have been shown to contain oocysts, and $'
rect fecal contact when handling infected cockroaches and snails are additional me-
cats is unlikely.14 chanical vectors.42 Control of these inverte-
Litter boxes should be changed daily, brates will help reduce the spread of infec-
since at least 24 hours usually are necessary tion.
for oocysts to reach the infective stage. Sporulated oocysts resist most disinfec-
Oo c st s y porulatton depends on environmen- tants, and only ammonia is effective when
tal temperature (Table 86-2). Unsporulated it is in contact with contaminated surfaces
oocysts are more susceptible to disinfection for extended periods (see Table 86-3). Be-
and environmental destruction; therefore cause of the time required for chemical dis-
control efforts should be directed at this infection and the fumes produced by am- a
stage. Litter pans should be disinfected with monia, immersing litter pans in boiling or
scalding water. Cat feces should be disposed scalding water usually is the easiest means 1
of in the septic system, incinerated,or sealed of disinfection. Steam cleaning can be used
tightly in a plastic bag before placing in a to decontaminate hard impervious surfaces.
sanitary landfill. Only organic litters that are Outbreaks of human infection have been
biodegradable should be placed in the septic reported when
system. High-temperature composting to part lc es were inhaled or in 7Sla
49 Disper-
kill oocysts remains to be proved. Under sion )t oocysts can also occur by earth-
no circumstances should litter boxes be moving or cultivating equipment, shoes, an- !
dumped into the environment. imal feet, wind, rain, and fomites. Streams
Oocysts survive best in warm, moist soil, .cap become contaminated via water runoff. -�
factors that help to explain the high preva- Stray and wild cats have been known to a
lence of disease in temperate and tropical contaminate streams. A report of military
climates. Exposure to constant freezing tem- recruits infected by drinking oocyst-contam-
peratures, drying, and high environmental inated stream water in a jungle has been
temperatures is lethal to oocysts (see Table made." Water from streams or ponds should
jk
always be boiled prior to drinking.
I. Table 86-3. Survival of Toxoplasma Prevention of human toxoplasmosis in-
MAXIMAL volves avoiding exposure of susceptible
CONDITIONS SURVIVAL TIME hosts, which includes the unborn fetus and
Bradyzo;tes immunosuppressed adults. Risk of exposure
-6°C(21.2°F) 1 day by contact with infected meat can be avoided
so°C(122°F) 20 min by cooking all meat to greater than 660C (see
64°C (147.2°F) 1 min Table 86-3)448.
oocysts Although freezing of meat in home freez-
Unsporulated ers will help reduce the prevalence of infec-
-2VC (-s.8°F) 1 day tion, it is not a consistently reliable method
37°C (sa.6°F) 1 day for killing organisms. Good personal hygiene
Sporulated dictates that hands be washed well after
-2o c (-4°F) 28 days handling raw meat. Animal care technicians
(122°F) 3o min
5% cleaning cat cages should wear masks and
5°jo Ammonia 60 min protective clothing.14
i
v ENTERIC PROTOZOAL
84 INFECTIONS
Carl E. Kirkpatrick
i
i
' The enteric protozoa covered in this chap- GIARDIASIS
ter are limited to four protozoan genera:
Giardia, Pentatrichomonas, and Entamoeba Etiology and Epidemiology
in the phylum Sarcomastigophora and Bal-
antidium in the phylum Ciliophora. Salient Within the mammalian small intestine,
characteristics of these organisms and the Giardia exists as fragile, anaerobic, lumen-
diseases they may cause are presented in dwelling, motile trophozoites. Environmen-
Table 84-1. Enteric protozoa of the phylum tal survival of Giardia between hosts is
Apicomplexa are discussed in Chapters 86 accomplished within resistant, dormant,
j (Toxoplasmosis and Neosporosis), 87 (En- nonmotile cysts. No intermediate host is
teric Coccidiosis), and 88 (Cryptosporidio- required to complete its life cycle (Fig.
sis).Detailed coverage of laboratory methods 84-1).'
for diagnosis of enteric protozoan infections The piriform, bilaterally symmetric tro-
is presented in Chapter 76 and Appendix phozoites divide asexually in the upper
12. small intestine of dogs and in the lower
Table 84-1. Comparison of Some Enteric Protozoa in Dogs and Cats'
C AVERAGE NATURAL ORGAN PATHOGENIC
ORGANISM STAGE SIZE(µm) HOSTS PARASITIZED MECHANISMS CLINICAL SIGNS
Giardiab Tr 15 x 10 x 3 D,C Small intestine Damage to glycocalyx None to chronic
Cy 10 x 8 other ammals and microvilli on diarrhea,
intestinal continuous or
epithelium; intermittent;
inhibition of some malabsorption
digestive enzymes;
host inflammatory
� response
Pentatrichomonas Tr 8 x 5 D,C. iQ Large intestine Probably none; None to diarrhea
hominis other
considered
harmless
commensal but
may be
opportunistic
pathogen
Entamoeba Tr 25(diam.) D,C(� Large intestine Invades colonic wall, None to diarrhea;
histolytica Cy 12(diam.) ?? producing ulcers; dysentery
may metastasize to
extraintestinal sites
Balantidium coli Tr 60 x 35 D,P ,TIHP Large intestine Invades colonic wall, None to diarrhea;
Cy 50(diam.) 7�< producing ulcers dysentery
(metastases rare)
'Tr = trophozoite,Cy = cyst,D = dog,C = cat H = human_bemg)NHP = nonhuman primate,P = pig.
"Some Giardio spp. may be identical.
804
ai 4V,
1&
i
ENTERIC PROTOZOAL INFECTIONS 805
J
Figure 84-1. Diagram of Giardia a
life cycle. indicating organelles
of cost and trophozoite visible
by light microscopy. After cyst
(1) is ingested by the host. ex- a
cvstation (2) occurs in the small \ 5
intestine. Trophozoites (3-51 at-
tac.h to the mucosa or swim M
freely in the lumen, where they ° 3
divide asexually. Following en-
cystment, cysts are excreted (6) 5
in the feces, completing the cy-
cle. Excreted trophozoites (7) do
not survive. Key to structural
features: a. cvst wall b. nuclei: i; �^ b 6
c. axonemes (recurrent flagella): e
d. adhesive disk fragments: e. /
median bodies: f, flagella.
(From Kirkpatrick CE: Vet Clin
North Am [Small Anim Proct] — 7
17:1377-1387. 1987. Reprinted
i'
orith permission.)
small intestine of cats (Fig. 84-2). Tropho- phozoites may be passed in diarrheic stools,
zoite adherence to the brush border of the cysts are more routinely shed. Whereas cysts
intestinal mucosa is accomplished by a ven- may survive for days to weeks in cool, moist
tral adhesive disc. Eight flagella propel the conditions, trophozoites do not persist out-
trophozoite from one attachment site to an- side the host. On excretion, the relatively
other. In doh, transformation to the rela- resistant. ellipsoidal cysts are immediately
tively resistant cyst form is thought to occur infective to another host. Following expo-
mainly in the cecum.' Encystation of tropho- sure of ingested cysts to gastric and duo-
zones 1s stlmu ated v bile salts and fatty denal fluids. the trophozoites are triggered
acids at slightly akaline pH.' Although tro- to emerge and to colonize the small intes-
tinal mucosa. j
The prepatent period of Giardia infection l
4 � ;* 5 ranges from 5 to 12 days (mean, about 8
days) in dogs and from 5 to 16 days (mean,
about 10 days) in cats. The onset of disease,
when it occurs, may precede cyst shedding
by 1 to 2 days.
Giardia is worldwide in distribution and
infects many species of mammals an birds.
Immature animals and immunodeficient
adults are most likely to be found infected
and clinically ill.' For example, adult, IgA-
deficient dogs were found to be four times
' more likely to shed Giardia cysts than were
dogs with normal serum IgA concentra-
tions.` In immunocompetent animals, it is
likely that previous exposures confer some
degree of immunity to reinfection and dis-
ease. Congregations of animals, such as in I
sure 84-2. Giardia trophozoite in a fecal smear breeding kennels, catteries, and laboratory
stained to enhance the characteristic organelles (com- animal colonies, have a high prevalence of
pare with Fig. 84-1) (iron hematoxvlin: x 20001. Giardia infection.'
808 PROTOZOAL AND OTHER INFECTIONS 46 ENTERIC P
Thakpy in nonmetallic containers away from direct Table 84-2
sunlight. In dogs, tinidazole has the advan-
In the United States, none of the drugs tage of efficacy with just one dose per day,20 i DRUG
used to treat giardiasis in small animals is but this drug is not widely available. 1
officially approved for that purpose. How- Treatment failures may occur. As for many Metronidazo
ever, these drugs have been used commonly infectious diseases, the possibility of rein- Tinidazole
in human patients. Some of the reportedly fection must be considered along with in- Quinacrine
effective treatment regimens in dogs and cats adequate treatment efficacy. Retreatment
are shown in Table 84-2.1'-21 The nitroimi- with the same or alternative drug should be ipronidazole
Furazolidon,.
dazole compounds (e.g., metronidazole, attempted. There is some recent evidence
ipronidazole, tinidazole) and furazolidone for the existence of drug-resistant Giardia 'D = dog.
are suspected mutagens and carcinogens. strains.21=' °Dose per
In especially stubborn cases of
However, the results of a controlled a ide- canine giardiasis, concurrent administration `Neurotox:
p o facilitate the
etiologic study of women indicated no in- of quinacrine and metronidazole at the dos- mg)may be
azole ages iven in Table 84-2 may be effective.211 d In drinki
creased risk of cancer due to metronidazole g
g o Y
therapy.2I Little is known of the effect of The question of whether otherwise °In suspe:
these drugs in pregnancy. However, since healthy animals found to be passing Giardia
giardiasis is not a life-threatening disease, it cysts warrant treatment is sometimes a sub- ments hay
seems prudent not to treat pregnant animals. ject for debate among clinicians. Points in not as h
In vitro susceptibility studies have indicated favor of treating such patients are that signs thought.'
that tinidazole is the most effective drug (in of giardiasis may recur, the cyst-passing an- required t
terms of the minimum concentration neces- imal serves as a reservoir of infection for cysts of G
sary to kill Giardia trophozoites), followed other animals, and giardiasis may be a zoon- are infect;
by furazolidone, metronidazole, and quina- osis. duce giarc
crine.2'-26 Quinacrine, at recommended dos- istering C
ages, may cause transient GI upset. Furazol- people ha
idone may be preferred for use in cats, owing Public Health Considerations idemiolog
to its palatability and suspension formula- pet owner
tion. However, this drug may need to be Giardia is the most rotnmon intestinal giardiasis
given for a longer duration than metronida- parasite of people a_2sL nth America. Manv would se
zole to be completely effective. Ipronidazole, infections are acquired by drinking unfit- fected pet
a water-soluble nitroimidazole compound, tered municipal drinking water nriginating- Disinfec
may be preferred in treating large groups of from Giordin-anntaminated sirpams rivers, be accom
kenneled dogs, as the drug is relatively in- or lakes. Infants and children in day care monium
expensive and may be administered in facilities appear to have a particularly high recommei
drinking water.27 The ipronidazole-treated risk of infection.29-31 The results of some tions (Ro,
water should be changed daily and offered biochemical and cross-transmission experi- NY; Totil.
inactivate
ute at 40 t
Chlorin.
s n
i
600,000 Figure 84-5. The concentration water water inc
of Giardia cysts in feces changes
500.000 significantly from day to day,as Organic c:
(n shown in this naturally infected amines ar
w cat. (Modified from Kirkpatrick marked et
w a00.000 CE, Farrell JP: Am I Vet Res
45:2182-2188, 1984, with per-
within 2
a 300.000 mission.)
cc
? 200.000
Cn TRICHC
In 100.000
U �
t 0.000
Etiology
<,a,00a
0 F, hom
10 20 30 40 50
DAYS itin- the
ENTERIC PROTOZOAL INFECTIONS 809
Table 84-2. Drugs Used to Treat Canine and Feline Giardiasis,
DOW INTERVAL DURATION
DRUG SPECIES (mg/kg) ROUTE (hours) (days)
Metronidazole D 15-30' PO 12-24 5-7
C 10-25 PO 12-24 5-7
Tinidazole D 44 PO 24 3
Quinacrine D 9 PO 24 6
D 6�6 PO 12 5
1pronidazole D 126 mg/L.1 PO Ad libitum 7
Furazolidone C 4` PO 12 7-10
'D = dog, C = cat, PO = oral-
f 'Dose per administration at specified interval,expressed as mg(kg unless otherwise stated.
'Neurotoxicity has been noted with higher doses previously recommended, see Nitroimidazoles, Chapter 77. To
facilitate the dosage to smaller animals, the 250 or 500 mg tablets may be ground,or smaller tablet size(50 or 100
mg) may be used.
In drinking water.
In suspension, 200 mg/day maximum.
ments have suggested that Giardia spp. are cecum) of people, dogs, cats,and some other
not as highly host-specific as was once mammals. Transmission is direct via the
thought.32.32a,32b33 However, more studies are fecal-oral route. The organisms exist only in
required to determine conclusively whether the trophozoite stage. Trophozoites bear five
cysts of Giardia spp. shed by cats-and dogs anteriorly directed flagella and a single, pos-
are infective for people."-"A Attempts to in- teriorly directed flagellum that arises at the
duce giardiasis in dogs'and cats by admin- anterior end and courses along the body of
istering Giardia organisms obtained from the trophozoite attached to the undulating
people have yielded equivocal results." Ep- membrane, a characteristic feature of tricho-
iderniologic studies have not indicated that monads. A rigid, rod-shaped organelle, the
pet ownership is a significant risk factor for axostyle, runs through the trophozoite and
11 giardiasis in people."-" Nevertheless, it protrudes from the posterior end (see Fig.
ly would seem prudent to treat Giardia-in- 84-4).15
11- fected pets as long as uncertainty remains.
ig Disinfection of cysts on premises can best
be accomplished by use of quaternary am-
re monium compounds." At manufacturers' Clinical Findings
,1h
'71 recommended dilutions, various prepara-
ne tions (Roccal, Winthrop Labs, New York,
ri- NY; Totil, Calgon Corp, St. Louis, MO) have It is widely thought that P. hominis does
inactivated >99% of G. muris within 1 min- not cause disease in dogs and cats, although
ute at 40 to 100C and 200 to 25°C. it is possible that it is an opportunistic
C hl ring disinfection of public drinking pathogen. There is no doubt that large num-
wat e in controlling giardial hers of trophozoites may be seen in diarrheic
tion contamination. a nn must be feces of dogs, yet an unambiguous, causal
ages
",as rganic chlorine compounds such as N-hal- relationship remains to be established.
cted amines are stable in water and have shown
,rick marked efficacy in inactivating Giardia cysts
Res within 2 minutes at 220C.118
per- Diagnosis and Therapy
TRICHOMONIASIS Microscopic examination of fecal smears,
as described previously for Giardia tropho-
zoites, will reveal the tiny, motile tropho-
Etiology and Epidemiology zoites (see Table 84-1). The trophozoites of
P. hominis must be distinguished from those
of Giardia. Intercurrent P. hominis and Giar-
P. hominis is a piriform flagellate inhab- dia infections can occur. If desired, tricho-
iting the large intestines (particularly the moniasis may be eliminated with metroni-
Regional Open S ce
2
MIDPENINSULA REGIONAL OPEN SPACE DISTRICT
RESOLUTION NO.
RESOLUTION OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS
OF THE MIDPENINSULA REGIONAL OPEN SPACE DISTRICT
HONORING TONY LOOK
WHEREAS, the Board of Directors of the Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District finds that providing public
open space and park lands is of vital environmental, social, and economic interest to the citizens of'our
community, region, state, and nation; and
WHEREAS,preservation of open space and park lands is dependent on the grass-roots efforts and the long-term
commitment of the individuals in our communities; and
WHEREAS, no individual has demonstrated a higher level of commitment, dedication, and steadfast preservation
effort than Claude "Tony"Look; and
WHEREAS, Tony recently received the Meritorious Service Award from the American Park and Recreation
Society for his more than thirty years of service in working to expand and improve parks and open space; and
WHEREAS, Tony has served in an astounding number of positions dedicated to open space and park land
preservation, including terms as a member of'the Santa Clara County Parks Commission, the California Trails
and Greenways Foundation, the Santa Cruz Mountains Trails Association, the California Recreational Trails
Committee, and as founder and former executive director of the Sempervirens Fund; and
WHEREAS, throughout his career, Tony has constantly shown extraordinary motivation, tireless effort,
tremendous energy, and above all a true commitment to the furtherance of parks and open.space, and has
come to represent the true spirit of'the California environmental community.
Now, THEREFORE,BE IT RESOL vED that the Board of•Directors of•the Midpeninsula Regional Open Space
District applauds, honors, and congratulates Claude "Tony"Look,for his leadership, his devotion to the cause of
environmentalism, and his untiring labors to preserve open space and park lands.
Adopted by the Board of Directors
November 20, 1996
330 Distel Circle . Los Altos,CA 94022-1404 . Phone:415-691-1200 . FAX:415-691-0485 e E-mail:mrosd®netcom.com is
Board of Directors:Pete Siemens,Mary C.Davey,Teena Henshaw,David T.Smernoff,Nonette Hanko,Betsy Crowder,Wim de Wit
General Manager:L.Craig Britton
Regional Open S. ce
MIDPENINSULA REGIONAL OPEN SPACE DISTRICT
R-96-123
Meeting 96-24
November 20, 1996
AGENDA ITEM
Continued Review of Draft Mission Statement and Revised Basic Policies
GENERAL MANAGER'S RECOMMENDATION
Review the revised policy language and finalize as a draft for reference during the Regional
Open Space Plan process.
DISCUSSION
On January 27, 1996 you held a special workshop to initiate the Regional Open Space Plan
with review of the Basic Policies and development of a draft Mission Statement. An
administrative draft version of the policy revisions was presented at your Regular Meeting on
August 14, 1996 (see report R-96-87). On August 14, you also determined that the Regional
Open Space Plan is statutorily exempt from the California Environmental Quality Act
(CEQA). A public workshop was held on October 30, 1996 to review the administrative
draft policies.
The current version of the policies reflects the comments and changes made at the
October 30 workshop. The draft no longer presents the old and new language side by side;
only the proposed new language is shown. Changes that were made at the October 30
workshop are shown with strikeouts and shading. Two general format changes were directed
at the workshop: 1) put the statements into the present tense where appropriate (i.e. "the
District provides") rather than the future tense (i.e. "the District will provide"); and 2) use
footnotes instead of references within the document, and place the footnotes on one page at
the end of the document.
After finalization of the draft policies, the next step in the Regional Open Space Plan process
will be review of a plan and cost estimate for the desired future greenbelt. The current
schedule anticipates that this stage will be reached by March, 1997.
Prepared by:
Randy Anderson, Senior Planner
Contact person:
L. Craig Britton, General Manager
330 Distel Circle . Los Altos, CA 94022-1404 . Phone:415-691-1200 . FAX:415-691-0485 . E-mail: mrosd@netcom.com
Board of Directors:Pete Siemens,Mary C.Davey,Teena Henshaw,David T.Smernoff,Nonette Hanko,Betsy Crowder,Wim de Wit
General Manager:L.Craig Britton
........................
Basic Policy Revision (10/30/96) Neves 1 public safety by
......:: ..............
preventing development of areas prone
INTRODUCTION to landslides, earthquake damage,
flooding, and wildland fires.
"...to try to save for everyone. . . . some
of the health that flows down across the • Establishes boundaries for urban
green ridges from the Skyline, and some growth, provides a respite from urban
of the beauty and refreshment of spirit that living, and enhances regional quality of
are still available to any resident of the life.
valley who has a moment, . . . to lift up
his eyes unto the hills." ) In short, open space is "room to breathe."
-Wallace Stegner :3)-.
MISSION STATEMENT
........................... ....................................................................
.....
mission
:::<: >::::.... ............ :_:: .��> '»<:«<::... The District'sis:
AM
VC
Asti �.�� . .�....�t.. ..��.....ax.��
�rte z .;p :::::::::::::::::::::::::
...........................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
acq
uire uire and reserve a regional
:::::$.:::::. ::::::::::::::::: 4
..: ; ; ;Q . ` greenbelt of open space land to
...
.:..:.....................................:.:........................ ...........
s e € <.; 3 € : :: :s ; tv ab a etu' protect and restore the
::::::::. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::_:::::: P rPY
. .;..��d ...��€� . .y<;v� c� as a integrity of the natural environment; and
r public enjoyment
provide opportunities o b
::::::::::::::.::: ..::::::::.:::Y::::: P PP f P
€ 't €1 <: i € 'St [: and education, consistent with ecological
............................................
values.
w
OBJECTIVES
Open space:
• Is land area that is allowed to remain 1. Open Space Land Preservation: The
.....................
in or return to its natural state. Some District will see . ► purchase or
_.
.:....:...........
.............
Open space lands may bjkWd be usedotherwise acquire interest in the
€ef compatible agr-ioeltue HUM maximum feasible area of strategic
..............................
M.S. open space land within the District,
including baylands and foothills. The
• Protects areas of scenic beauty and goal is to preserve a regional greenbe
preserves natural habitats necessary to of open spaee lands, lifiking District
lands with
sustain plant and animal life, especiallyp
:.;;;;::.;;;;;.........::.::.::.;:.;:.;:.;:.;:.;;;:.;;.. .. .....................
native and endangered species. federal, state, county, and city
parklands and watershed lands.
• Offers opportunities to the public for ,
education, recreation, and renewal of Pks. 2 -g).
spirit.
Page 1
Policies ownership of the land. The District wili
act as a land bank through acquisition
District Purpose of less than fee interest to accomplish the
same results with less immediate
a. As an open space agency, the District's expenditure of the District's funds.
primary purpose wiJ4 to preserve Examples include acquisition of a
development and epefafien e open space remainder interest w life
use intensive park md reefea4efw faeififies tenancy fef the owner; open space,
vvi]4 Femain %49i4n the pfeN4nee of th conservation, or scenic easements; and
leeal, state, md fedeml pafk systems. purchase and leaseback arrangements. The
District wiA4 actively strive i to acquire
open space through gifts and matching
grants. Gifts of land with life tenancy will
be 0§ encouraged. Other creative open
3-, LandAequi�kien Pehekes, Pg. 3, A . space preservation techniques will be
} �W—
explored and deve4eped W" when
possible. (See LwtdAequiskion PoMes,
Strategic Emphasis Pp. 5 10L)
b. The District will use its available The District desires to acquire open space
resources primarily to acquire or otherwise from willing sellers. Eminent domain ffmy
preserve land outside the Urban Service ~q be used e* within the
Area boundaries of cities that has District's boundaries and sphere of
regionally significant open space value and influence in those instances
that might be lost to development if the where all reasonable attempts at voluntary
District fails to act.'- (See Mayte negotiations have failed, the property in
Nam�Qpem SpaeeAequisifien Peheies, Pgr question is necessary to the District's open
space program, and where there are no
feasible eaffent or pfespeetiye alternate
The District's goal is to acquire lands acquisitions that would achieve the
within its own boundaries and Sphere of District's objectives
Influence. Acquisitions outside the (See Pe a rudi.
District's boundaries will be considered Domain, Gr&na A,hq. RA
only if exceptional purchase opportunities
arise that clearly support the District's Master Plan, Regional Open Space Plan
mission.1 (See LandAequWfien Peheies,
Pg. 3.) d. To guide the District's open space
preservation efforts, the District wiH
Open Space Acquisition pubes ON a master plan and a
regional open space plan. The master plan
c. The District wig acquire' land most sets forth the DisWet's aeqeisifiefl.
often through fee simple interest (outright pelieies
ownership). Options and installment and shows the relative pfiefities for-
purchases will M# be employed to thisr potential open space land
end. To conserve funding for acquisitions. The regional open space plan
preservation, the District will #W seek to shows the genere4 eenfigufatien a.
preserve open space without outright
Page 2
... %:ii4..9s:..r`yi'i:':?:i::G::iii'.i:::vi::}::iiiiiiii':i':i.::ii:;;ik.....i•.:ti?it
Joint Projects
c. The District explore# and engage$
Both plans wiff in joint projects to maximize the
subject to periodic review and opportunities for preservation of open
modification by the Board of Directors space. Examples include interagency land
after public hearings. Both plans wiH-be management agreements, joint planning or
submitted to the counties, cities, and research studies, and joint acquisition,
other conservation-oriented local, state, improvement, or resource management
and federal agencies and organizations for projects.
review and comment in order to encourage
consistency with their plans. Advocacy
d. In order to better plan,
.............
2. Inter-Agency Relationships: The ireve and operate a regional greenbelt
District will worry with and encourage$ of open space preserves W trails, and to
private and other public agencies to further cooperate in this effort with other
preserve, maintain, and enhance open jurisdictions, the District wiH ti
space. encourage and advocate preservation of
open space by other governmental
agencies. The District l support
Policies and encourage community groups, non-
profits, and other conservation oriented
Cooperation groups in their efforts to urge other
agencies to take actions which will help
a. The Distfiet will p fnew and accomplish the purposes and goals of the
District.
efganiza4iens, individuals, and the DisWet
3. Open Space Management: The
. District w4l followo an management
ley l that ensure proper care of
....................
00
`°j __ the land, that provide public access
► : .::::::: € appropriate to the nature of the land
n :.: :.:;.>:....;:>:.>:.>: consistent with ecological
p .. values and public safety. (See-Resou
Management PeHeies)
Participation
Policies
b. The District will participate$ in the
is Resource Management
_............._....._........_...:..........._....... ::::...
land use plans of other age.ncies
: that affect the a. The District wiff protect$ and restore
District' :`::`':::::`::::::. the `:':`:```:':''::` diversityand integrity of its
. ..��t �
resources for their value to the
Page 3
environment, and to peep leMVM, and include the carrying capacity of the land,
will provided for the use of the preserves awffl restoration efforts, the
consistent with resource protection." ability to plan and implement trails,
O?eseuFee Management Mission Stakenwnf) parking, restrooms, mapboards and signs,
and identification and mitigation of
Public Access and Constraints potential safety hazards.
b. The District wiff provides public access Agricultural, residential, and other
to the open space lands for low-intensity j `
recreational uses. The District's highest uses of the land may
priority is >:: .::x.x�„';: land to limit public access in certain areas.
P ty � i`�'
complete the greenbelt. The development Where appropriate, access may be
of facilities to meet the demands of provided on a permit basis.
increased public use w4l reqei 1 ``'
funding that would otherwise be available The District wi44 strive] to provide public
for acquisition. (SeeReseu access to its lands to everyone, regardless
of place of residence, physical abilities, or
economic status. (See Access Plan for
Persons with Disabilities)
:::::...:.....:.........::........... .........:..._.. ...::... .......:::..
t:::':::.;'.:: Public Safety
Th Di c will monito ' and mans ea
a stn t c.
:•:i•isF.':i::Fi:{j::::'.:i'i:::i:iiiY.'i::i::i:i::'�:�i:.:
its preserves to provide a safe environment
<MU,;:>. :;:.:::;.: for visitors and nei hbors. �
z ii�::..' id<+ f€ #rbvaia
.. .:.
::•ii`f::%:i:i': Neighbor Pokey, D��ef Land
t::::'r::ii::ii:i ::::::.`::i:+::i::i::......
R-egul&4ems.)
:..:...:: ....�, r:.
:' Recreational Use and Improvements
•>::::r,::rrrsr
-' ....... + b! :; d. Improvements on District lands wiff
n be limited to facilities ie:
< € ► € generally
Siiti;i::i{:•i•' ...
:...... ..... 'v?;+{:}t ;i• .....
# parking areas, trails and patrol roads,
restrooms, mapboards, and signs) for low-
.................F...:v:......F:n..
intensity recreational uses. Low-intensity
aas recreation includesapt€ s
_M hiking, horseback riding,
Developing facilities and managing public bicycling, informal picnicking,
use activities while protecting natural photography. and natem stedy. Low-
resources and providing for public safety intensity recreation avoids concentration of
may require limits on access to some open use or- designation of arem exelusively
space lands. t t one use, significant alteration of the land,
lrt :hp € .; tg and significant impact on the natural
re
resources r or on the appreciation of
..... In addition to nature." (See Resomfee Manageme
protection of sensitive natural resources, Pes3
factors that may delay or limit access
Page 4
Special use facilities, (i.e. nature centers, Archaeological resources will-beJM
historic structures, picnic tables, or evaluated, protected, and made known to
backpack camps), and special use activities the public as appropriate to ensure their
(i.e. large recreation events, hang gliding, preservation." (See Pieseur-ee Marwgeme
or off-leash dog areas), AbeNo PoMes)
considered on a case by case basis. These
types of uses may be allowed when they Agriculture and E&Aerprise
do not monopolize significant areas of i Use
natural land, do not significantly impact
natural or aesthetic resources, and provide f. Agricultural use of District land, such
benefits such as environmental education, as grazing, timbef hafyest-, orchards, and
heritage resource protection, or public vineyards may be allowed when it does not
enjoyment and appreciation of nature. The utilize significant areas of natural land,
cost of management does not significantly impact natural or
MM of these typesof facilities and aesthetic resources, does not unreasonably
activities will be a factor in deciding restrict public access, and provides
whether to permit them on District lands. benefits such as heritage resource
protection, fire hazard reduction, or
Because of the District's commitment to income to the District. Limited ea"r-ise
maximum open space preservation efforts, (feventie predeeing) , use
expenditure guidelines will-be established of District land, such as rental residences,
fef the amount of funding available for communications antennas, or special
recreational improvement projects and commercial use such as filming, will
restoration activities. be allowed when it meets the above
standards." (See Reseuree Mamgememf
The District will works cooperatively with Pokeies, Goals 40 and 14.)
other governmental agencies and
organizations to facilitate Research
development and management of recreation
facilities and of public use. The District g. The District wiJ4 supports the
will ensure' that such development is development of scientific knowledge about
consistent with protection of important natural and cultural resources and
natural values of the open space. management techniques through
cooperative arrangements with educational
Cultural Resources and scientific institutions, and by
supporting research on which to base its
e. Historic structures and sites will # management and improvement decisions.
be protected by the District where they are Such studies shall not unreasonably restrict
associated with lands acquired for overall public access or significantly impact the
open space values. Due to the high cost of environment.
evaluating, managing, and restoring such
facilities, the District will depends on Neighbor Relations
grant assistance, public-private
partnerships, and outside assistance to h. In both the day-to-day conduct of its
business and in the long-range planning for
support these activities. Sites will b
evaluated for archaeological resources public open space preserves, the District
prior to any new use or improvement shall makes every effort to cooperate with
which might impact the site. preserve neighbors, to take into account
Page 5
their perspectives, to fully address their open space.
concerns, and to engage and involve them
in the process of making decisions Meeting Procedures
regarding the preserves of which they are
neighbors. Active management, patrol, b. The District wi14 diligently follows the
maintenance, and public education wiR provisions of the Ralph M. Brown Act
Q provided to minimize threats to public regarding open meeting procedures, and
safety, fire hazards, litter, noise, erosion, will be guided by its enabling legislation
unsound use of the land, disturbance of under the state Public Resources Code,
wildlife and vegetation, and trespassing.* Article 3, Division 5, Chapter 3, Section
(See Good Neighbor Pokey, Pub& 5500. The District wiR encourages and
welcomes public participation at its
meetings and make its actions, intents, and
decisions clearly visible to its-eenstiteertey
4. Public Involvement: The District
will educates and make# clearly visible Public Input
to the public the purposes and actions of
the District, and will actively encourages c. The District wi4l encourages and
public input and involvement in the welcome# communication from the public
District's decision-making process and by being as accessible to the public as
other activities ' fS" Rukw of possible and by regularly soliciting public
PoUcks, Land comments about what the District should
be accomplishing and how it should
proceed.
Policies Participation
Public Information d. The District will seeks to involve the
public in the operation and decision-
a. The District wiH works through a making of the District and in general
variety of means and media to inform the planning for acquisition and future use of
public of the District's goals and open space lands through special
objectives, its short and long-term plans, workshops, committees and task forces,
the critical need for open space and public outreach activities. Through
preservation, and the appropriate use of staff and volunteer programs, the District
District lands. This information shad b wiHprovides ;; :` environmental
":::.�:......:.:.:..,.a education and fosters -public appreciation
disseminated t the ° P PP
possible eenstittieoey throughout the of open space values.
District. Land-owners and potential
donors %1-be0§ adequately informed of
the District's purpose and goals, and of the
possible methods of preserving land as
Page 6
:: :.:::..... :. .:::::::::::::::::::: .:.::::::::::::::::::.::::::::::::::::::::::.:_:...•.
v:::::::•iii:Li4:^:•i;:•:i:•}i>}:?i:4i};?{!•.ii}iii:•i:•iiiiii ;?�ii:•i:????4}ipiii :?`.�ii'i:;<}::i>:Y;}?i�ii:+:ii}'':?hi:4:?^ii'riY•:iii:^:?•i:?:'Ji:?: ::::::: •:::::::::::. ....
iiii''ii'�i}iiii};;:'iF:i:?;ivi::i�iiiiii.''isii}i}iij:'i:;vi?�:Ai�i:�i:�??i::•••:;A:�:i:^:vi:iii:i::::ii.. ..4.v:v:h:::v:i.:�::: <.:::%: ::v.::may::y:.::•:::::.:w:::::::::::::.�::::::•:::?• :.�.�:
...... .
itrit�t` i lttti�€��:> i `tiit• ;: : ...: . ::: d�.... . ..
. . ..:: .. .:.€ �..:<... ... ''::• :• �€� ���
.....
�i}N�l �'•):: ::. ..{*�Y' �.i][1RMh:ti+�.i`.?'::..i•.;:d j Y '. .•{•1:i:::{F{!
61119
...........:j::.: ' 'I: A
'.Tii:?•:iiii¢.ii:iiiiii:�i: iiiiiii::;}:?.iii}i;^:•ibiiii:4:9:4:•i •iiiii: "'"":f:i,.,,,.,l,�,.+.•,.•'�f:
::i::>y;;iYStii::: ::?::ji:i�i::Y.::i::ii:i L:::i::::?:.::,.{.i::iii:?.:::.':}Y.:::::...........:. •::::.. ::i:•iiiii:...:::::.�....
:i'a::'':«a?.iiii:.i:;:i•::: :.: •i»:.i'2{`:+i:;;;:;.ii>:?•ii ai•;x:o-:•i x•r;ta:•::»::•>s:
5. Administration: The staff will
k3i"74riX�iitTVAti'RRJ.d:a�.::•:::ii :? iifid.4i'r':tt'h.€.t''• :r •
administers the affairs of the District on
behalf of the public so as to maximize
P :::::::::::::::: .::::::::::.::::::::::::::::.:::::::::.•::::::::::::::::::.
accomplishment of the oafs l ua <: :> :: .:..::. `�;
P g :.; ! .is.>:.;:.;>:.>:.;;i:.i:.>::::i:.>:.;:.iii:....:.....
<::
of the District within existing
<_ t ...
....._. �;:a;:ai;`ii;Sii?aii$aSato'::ipE'y`'::::'�.:;';;ii:S;?iESr:;i5;:;`iapta?':za;:�::;:i:•;?::.i: ":c»zP:;:;�fip:>'
:.::.:,.......:......:,::,. j,�. }}..
financial constraints.
fi
ii_::iii:' i:3� ;Si;;S'irc:::;i•iii:::io-:..:;:>':.r::%:::?::•::::'.�.:::::::.:::..�:::.:;' :?.�<;i..'.�:::.::.�;:::;
Policies :;' >< _ x
::::::::::... '.....::.. ......:.::....::..........::::::....:. .....::.......::..:..............
Cost Constraints
a. Because the District is committed to
maximum preservation effort, it willlifnit
administrative expense growth
by following an average annual operating
expenses growth guideline, and by
utilizing the help of other governmental
agencies, private entities, contractual
services, and volunteers.
Professional Organization
b. The District employs a highly capable
and professional staff and provides them
with the facilities and resources needed to
run an efficient and responsible
organization.
Page 7
M-Illmi::imi:
.......... . ..
pmWiNb",ai"": .1
. .. ........ ........ ............ ......
. ........ .....
.. .......
.0ow
.30.w
. .....i.0-MIOW
jfidw,]Pto&�XX:
.......... ..........
... ..... ... ..... ....
. ..... .. . .. . .. . .... ......
iii:
JW
i.... .. ..
..........................
........-,..... X.
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......... ............
.............
.... . .................
WWI........
......................
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...... ... .
........... ,
....
. ............ ..... 100
Wo. A
. .... ...................................................................
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.......................................................
........ .. . ......... .............................
..............
..........
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im........................
P6.........
6.&� ffific a ny a Ds
—.. .................... .......
..................... .......
Page 8
�i9rt"a,r��,Le. rnr+e�
INTRODUCTION
TO
INFLUENCING SKILLS
MID-PENINSULA
OPEN SPACE DISTRICT
PRESENTED BY:
ART O'NEAL
ART O'NEAL & ASSOCIATES
127 W. 17th AVENUE
OLYMPIA, WA 98501
TELEPHONE: (360) 943-1207
Claims No. 96-20 |
Meeting 96-24
Date: Nov. 2O. 1996
Revised
K8|DPEN|N�ULAF{���|CJ�AL OPEN SPACE DISTRICT
# Amount Name Description
� 1203 48.29 Clerk's Auto Parts @ Machine Shop' Inc. Vehicle Maintenance Supplies �
� 1204 43G.1 1 Annette Coleman Reimbursement--Field Supplies
�
1205 192.35 FmdEx. Express Mail Service
1206 400.20 Garden|ond Power Equipment Equipment Repairs and Parts
�
� 1207 442.48 The Home Depot Field Supplies
1208 290.39 Minton'a Lumber @/ Supply Hardware Supplies
1208 1.248.61 The Office Depot Office Supplies
1210 4'204.08 Popish Appraisal Q/ Consulting Appraisal Services
1211 878.27 [)vchond Supply Handvvomm Field Supplies
1212 114.48 Platypus Nature Center Cabinet Parts
1213 1'384.08 R /& R Designers Acquisition Rental Repairs
1214 319.68 San Jose Mercury News Advnrtiommnent-1O/3O Board Meeting
1215 150.85 Summit Uniforms Uniforms �
�
1216R 73.20 Deirdre Dolan Vehicle Expense
1217R 54.476.00 Tag Group Corporation Construction Cornpany—Sky|ineOffion
1218R 342.02 Petty Cash [q|mm. Office Supplies, Local Business
Meetings, Resource Documents, Class
Registration and Field Supplies
Total 64.961.22
�
Page
|
/ Claims No. 90-20
Meeting 96-24
Date: Nov. 20. 1996
� K8|DPEN|NGULA REGIONAL OPEN SPACE DISTRICT
�
/ # ,.."'" .` .~~.~ Description
� 1203 48.29 Clark'mAuto Parts & Machine Shop, Inc. Vehicle Maintenance Supplies
1204 433.11 Annette Coleman Rmnohuroemnmnt—Field Supplies
1205 193.25 FedEx. Express Mail Service
1206 400.20 Gardmn|ond Power Equipment Equipment Repairs and Parts
1207 442.48 The Home Depot Field Supplies
1208 290.39 K8inton'o Lumber Q' Supply Hardware Supplies
1208 1.248.61 The Office Depot Office Supplies
1210 4'204.08 Popish Appraisal 8/ Consulting Appraisal Services
1211 879.27 Orchard Supply Hardware Field Supplies
1312 114.48 Platypus Nature Canter Cabinet Parts
1213 1.384.08 R /& R Designers Acquisition Rental Repairs
1214 319.68 San Jose Mercury News Advertisement—1D/30Board Meeting
1215 150.85 Gunnnnit Uniforms Uniforms
�
Total 10,070.00
�
|
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�
�
�
|
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|
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�
� |
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|
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Page
i
Regional Open ,5 re
MIDPENINSULA REGIONAL OPEN SPACE DISTRICT
TO: Board of Directors
i
FROM: C. Britton, General Manager
DATE: November 14, 1996
SUBJECT: FYI
330 Distel Circle . Los Altos, CA 94022-1404 , Phone:415-691-1200 . FAX:415-691-0485 . E-mail:mrosd@netcom.com
Board of Directors:Pete Siemens,Mary C.Davey,Teena Henshaw,David T.Smernoff,Nonette Hanko,Betsy Crowder,Wim de Wit
General Manager:L.Craig Britton
Regional Open Soce
............
MIDPENINSULA REGIONAL OPEN SPACE DISTRICT
November 13, 1996
Honorable Tom Campbell
Member, United States Congress
910 Campisi Way, Suite IC
Campbell, CA 95008
Dear Congressman Campbell:
Thank you for your letter of November 4, and your kind words about the District. We
appreciate your continued support of our efforts to acquire and preserve open space land for
public use and enjoyment.
As you know, the District proposes to acquire the 48 1-acre parcel in question at a great
discount from Peninsula Open Space Trust(POST), a private non-profit land trust. In general.
when POST is presented with an opportunity to acquire lands, they first check with an
appropriate public agency, such as the District, to see if the property is desirable and if that
agency will take perpetual management responsibility. Typically, non-profits are not equipped to
manage such lands, and require some monetary return into their"revolving" land acquisition
fund. This kind of arrangement provides the non-profit entity, POST in this case, with additional
proceeds so that it may continue in its land acquisition activities.
While it's true that the District is currently managing this property so the public may
enter it now, our agreement with POST is for the District to acquire fee title to the land in order
to place it under the permanent protection of public ownership. This gives the District the
opportunity to acquire fee title to a parcel that otherwise might not have been available, and at a
price that is, in this case, as little as one-half as much as the District might otherwise pay.
Sempervirens Fund, the Nature Conservancy, Save-the-Redwoods League, and other private non-
profit land trusts typically operate in this manner, thereby replenishing some of their fund-raised
capital for future preservation efforts, especially where grant funds are available for the bargain
purchase cost.
The District initially applied only for the Habitat Conservation Fund (HCF) grant. that
being the only viable source of grant funds available at the time, to the best of our knowledge. As
is the case with most of our grant applications, we applied for the maximum grant amount of
$500,000. However, that amount is for the state-wide program and while we feel our request is .-
meritorious, we may get no grant, or a grant at a reduced amount.
330 Distel Circle . Los Altos, CA 94022-1404 . Phone:415-691-1200 * FAX:415-691-0485 * E-mail:mrosd@netcom.com 0
Board of Directors:Pete Siemens,Mary C.Davey,Teena Henshaw,David T.Smernoff,Nonette Hanko,Betsy Crowder,Wim de Wit
General Manager:L.Craig Britton
November 13, 1996
Honorable Tom Campbell
Page -2-
Subsequent to that application, we were advised through representatives of the
Environmental Enhancement and Mitigation Program (EEMP) to apply for a grant from that
source, even though the project didn't appear to score well enough under their criteria. We
decided to maximize the potential for full (one-half of the value) funding by applying for both
programs and hopefully receiving some portion of the total from each grant.
In'the extremely unlikely event that we receive the full amount requested from each grant
source, the District would amend the applications and request permission to use the ftinds to
acquire additional nearby properties, that are also critical to the preservation of the Lobitos Creek
riparian habitat. If the project scope could not be expended, less than the full amount of the grant
would be utilized. Both grant programs require a-non-state" match of 50-percent of the project
amount. In this case, with an appraised value of$1.7 million, the highest amount of grant funds
usable would be $850,000.
Thank you for the opportunity to clarify these issues, and I hope that I have fully
explained our position. Please feel free to contact me or Craig Britton, the District's general
manager, if you would like further explanation. And, thank you again for your continued support
of the District and its public programs.
Sincerely,
Nonette Hanko, President
Board of Directors
NH/mcs
cc: Board of Directors, MROSD
Audrey Rust, POST
RESPONSE ACTION PROPOSED RY STAFF
Board President Acknowledge/Respond
^ Director Acknowledge/Respond
Staff Acknowledge/Respond
Draft Response Attached
Staff to be Directed to Prepare Draft
Response for Board Consideration per
y /^� (� Board Directive(s)
November 1 0, 1996
9('iG 6 No Response Necessary
Board of directors, MROSD
330 Distel Circle
Los Altos, 94-022
At your recent special meeting to consider the Revised Basic
Policy of the Midpeinsula Regional Open Space District,
there were two versions of the Introduction.
The alternative Introduction prepared by the subcommittee
was thoroughly discussed, amended, and covered.
The stafffs proposed Introduction was about to be skipped
over, until I asked about it. Discussion of the staff
proposal was brushed aside by your president, giving the
public no opportunity to express their views.
As a member of the public, I would like to go on record that
I feel the staff Introduction is concise, succinct, and to
i
the point. I feel it is more in keeping with the intention of a
public body.
I
C /�, ,CkXA�,4-,A
Harry. Haeussler, Jr.
1094 Highland Circle
Los Altos, CA 9402 j
t
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I
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1